Resources Archives - Nutritional Psychology

What are Ultra-Processed Foods Doing to Your Mental and Physical Health?

Posted on May 14, 2024May 17, 2024 by CNP Super Admin

An umbrella review published in the BMJ reported that ultra-processed food consumption is associated with an increased risk of a range of adverse health outcomes
The most prominent were cardiometabolic disorders, mental disorders, and death from different causes.
The findings are based on 14 published meta-analyses and studies involving almost 10 million participants.

Scientists have long been reporting that individuals consuming high amounts of certain foods or taking certain substances tend to often suffer from specific diseases or disorders (Huang et al., 2023; Samuthpongtorn et al., 2023; Tilg, 2015; Wang et al., 2023).

However, these findings often fall short of establishing a cause-and-effect link between the consumption of specific food and health outcomes. This happens because the effects of foods become visible only after prolonged periods of consumption. Experimental studies that identify cause-and-effect relationships can often not be conducted for long periods. Additionally, since many of these adverse health effects are very serious, it would not be ethical to conduct an experiment that is expected to inflict such conditions on study participants.

Experimental studies that identify cause-and-effect relationships can often not be conducted for long periods

The next best thing available to scientists is looking at the results of many studies and seeing which associations between foods and health outcomes are reported consistently in study after study, conducted in different locations, by different people, and at different times, and which were just found once or twice and never again. This is the situation where meta-analyses and umbrella reviews come into play.

What is an umbrella review?

When many studies are conducted to explore a certain topic, scientists need ways to integrate the findings of these large numbers of studies. To do this, they conduct meta-analyses, i.e., studies on studies. However, when the number of studies is so large that there are many meta-analyses covering a topic, an umbrella review is conducted to integrate their findings.

So, an umbrella review is a type of systematic review that combines evidence from a multitude of systematic reviews and meta-analyses on a certain topic. It starts with a rigorous process of searching and selecting relevant systematic reviews and meta-analyses to include in the study. Assessing the quality of the included studies and integrating the findings of different reviews follows (Aromataris et al., 2015; Hedrih, 2023b).

Ultra-processed foods

Ultra-processed foods have attracted much research attention because of their links to adverse health outcomes. Ultra-processed foods are formulations made mostly or entirely from derived substances and various additives with few intact unprocessed or minimally processed food components (Hedrih, 2023a; Monteiro et al., 2019).

Ultra-processed foods have attracted much research attention because of their links to adverse health outcomes

These foods typically contain artificial additives, preservatives, and flavor enhancers. Additives include dyes, color stabilizers, non-sugar sweeteners, de-foaming, anti-caking or glazing agents, emulsifiers, or humectants. Some processes used in preparing ultra-processed foods, such as hydrogenation, hydrolyzation, or extrusion, are exclusively industrial processes that cannot be performed in a regular kitchen (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Ultra-processed foods characteristics and examples

Examples of ultra-processed foods include instant noodles, artificial sweeteners, artificially sweetened beverages, sugary cereals, microwaveable meals, reconstituted meat products, sweet and savory packaged snacks, pre-prepared frozen dishes, and soft drinks (Hedrih, 2023a). These foods are usually created with the intent of having a durable product that is highly palatable but also very cheap to produce, making its sale highly profitable.

The current study

Many studies have examined the links between consuming ultra-processed foods and adverse health outcomes in the past decades. These studies were also the subject of multiple meta-analyses. Study author Melissa M Lane and her colleagues decided to conduct an umbrella review that would integrate the findings of these meta-analyses.

They searched the scientific literature databases for meta-analyses focused on associations between the intake of ultra-processed foods and health outcomes (Lane et al., 2024). This search yielded 14 published meta-analyses containing results of 45 different analyses of links between ultra-processed foods and specific health outcomes. The total number of participants in all the studies included in these meta-analyses was slightly below 10 million people (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Study design (Systematic umbrella review)

The total number of participants in all the studies included in these meta-analyses was slightly below 10 million people

Individuals consuming high amounts of ultra-processed foods are more likely to develop a wide range of adverse health conditions
The umbrella review results confirmed the association between ultra-processed food consumption and a host of different adverse health outcomes. When the amount of ultra-processed food is considered (i.e., dose-response relations), the strongest associations were between ultra-processed food consumption and death from heart disease, Type 2 Diabetes, and obesity (particularly abdominal obesity).

When it is only considered whether an individual consumes ultra-processed foods or not, the strongest associations were with death from cardiovascular and heart disease, death from all causes, pancreatic and colorectal cancer, sleep problems, anxiety, depression, other mental disorders, wheezing, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, low HDL cholesterol, Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, obesity (particularly abdominal obesity), metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and Type 2 Diabetes (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Reported link of ultra-processed food consumption with adverse health conditions

Conclusion

While this type of study cannot confirm that ultra-processed food consumption is a causal factor in developing all these adverse health conditions, it clearly highlights increased health risks associated with consuming ultra-processed foods, particularly in large amounts. To make matters more serious, the risks are spread across a wide range of diseases and adverse health conditions affecting different organs and systems of organs. Many of these conditions are irreversible or fatal.

These findings, coupled with the fact that the consumption of ultra-processed foods has been increasing worldwide in recent decades, point to a need to develop public health strategies that would allow large parts of the population to replace ultra-processed foods in their diets with healthier alternatives, while still maintaining food safety and ensuring good availability of nutritious, healthy foods to these individuals.

The paper “Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes: umbrella review of epidemiological meta-analyses” was authored by Melissa M Lane, Elizabeth Gamage, Shutong Du, Deborah N Ashtree, Amelia J McGuinness, Sarah Gauci, Phillip Baker, Mark Lawrence, Casey M Rebholz, Bernard Srour, Mathilde Touvier, Felice N Jacka, Adrienne O’Neil, Toby Segasby, and Wolfgang Marx.

References

Aromataris, E., Fernandez, R., Godfrey, C. M., Holly, C., Khalil, H., & Tungpunkom, P. (2015). Summarizing systematic reviews: Methodological development, conduct and reporting of an umbrella review approach. International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare, 13(3), 132–140. https://doi.org/10.1097/XEB.0000000000000055

Hedrih, V. (2023a). Scientists Propose that Ultra-Processed Foods be Classified as Addictive Substances. CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/scientists-propose-that-ultra-processed-foods-be-classified-as-addictive-substances/

Hedrih, V. (2023b, June 6). Health Consequences of High Sugar Consumption. CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/health-consequences-of-high-sugar-consumption/

Huang, Y., Chen, Z., Chen, B., Li, J., Yuan, X., Li, J., Wang, W., Dai, T., Chen, H., Wang, Y., Wang, R., Wang, P., Guo, J., Dong, Q., Liu, C., Wei, Q., Cao, D., & Liu, L. (2023). Dietary sugar consumption and health: Umbrella review. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 381, e071609. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2022-071609

Lane, M. M., Gamage, E., Du, S., Ashtree, D. N., McGuinness, A. J., Gauci, S., Baker, P., Lawrence, M., Rebholz, C. M., Srour, B., Touvier, M., Jacka, F. N., O’Neil, A., Segasby, T., & Marx, W. (2024). Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes: Umbrella review of epidemiological meta-analyses. BMJ, e077310. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-077310

Monteiro, C. A., Cannon, G., Levy, R. B., Moubarac, J. C., Louzada, M. L. C., Rauber, F., Khandpur, N., Cediel, G., Neri, D., Martinez-Steele, E., Baraldi, L. G., & Jaime, P. C. (2019). Ultra-processed foods: What they are and how to identify them. Public Health Nutrition, 22(5), 936–941. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980018003762

Samuthpongtorn, C., Nguyen, L. H., Okereke, O. I., Wang, D. D., Song, M., Chan, A. T., & Mehta, R. S. (2023). Consumption of Ultraprocessed Food and Risk of Depression. JAMA Network Open, 6(9), e2334770. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.34770

Tilg, H. (2015). Cruciferous vegetables: Prototypic anti-inflammatory food components. Tilg Clinical Phytoscience, 1(10). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40816-015-0011-2

Wang, A., Wan, X., Zhuang, P., Jia, W., Ao, Y., Liu, X., Tian, Y., Zhu, L., Huang, Y., Yao, J., Wang, B., Wu, Y., Xu, Z., Wang, J., Yao, W., Jiao, J., & Zhang, Y. (2023). High-fried food consumption impacts anxiety and depression due to lipid metabolism disturbance and neuroinflammation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 120(118). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2221097120

Does Sleep Deprivation Increase Desire for High-Calorie foods?

Posted on February 12, 2024February 23, 2024 by CNP Super Admin

A study published in Nature Communications found that sleep deprivation decreases the activity of frontal and insular cortices, parts of the human brain responsible for higher-order processes when making food choices.
At the same time, the activity of the amygdala region, responsible for processing emotions, increases.
When we lack sleep, food choices become less rational and more emotional, increasing the desire for high-calorie foods and potentially leading to weight gain.

Our minds don’t function as well when we continually get less sleep than we need. After a prolonged period of time with less sleep, concentrating becomes progressively more difficult, our reactions become slower, and our minds can often wander off. We may even fall asleep unintentionally. Our mind starts “drifting.“ Sometimes, consuming substances like coffee, similar caffeinated beverages, or even medications like modafinil (Wingelaar-Jagt et al., 2023) can help us remain vigilant for some additional time. However, we must eventually have a sufficiently long sleep period to recuperate and remain healthy.

Why is sleep important?

Sleep is a natural and recurring state of reduced consciousness and responsiveness, characterized by altered sensory perception and inactivity of voluntary muscles. Sleep consists of two main types: non-REM sleep, which includes four stages characterized by progressively deeper sleep, and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, a stage associated with vivid dreams and heightened brain activity. During sleep, the body undergoes tissue repair, immune system strengthening, and the consolidation of memories. Sleep is crucial for maintaining physical and mental health. It plays a vital role in regulating mood, cognitive function, and overall well-being.

Insufficient or poor-quality sleep has been linked to various health issues, including impaired immune function, increased risk of chronic conditions, and negative effects on mood and cognitive performance (Hillman & Lack, 2013) (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Types of sleep

Lack of sleep is associated with obesity

Studies have reported that sleep loss is one of the risk factors for obesity. This is the case both in children and in adults worldwide. There is mounting evidence that consuming food at night, at the time when we should normally be sleeping, is linked with poor health outcomes, such as worse cardiometabolic health (Bermingham et al., 2023), but also with an increased risk of obesity (Lent et al., 2022). Studies also indicate that food consumed at night tends to be less healthy. Individuals eating at night tend to consume less fruits and vegetables and more sugar-sweetened beverages and fast foods.

There is mounting evidence that consuming food at night, when we should be sleeping, is linked with poor health outcomes

There is an eating disorder called night eating syndrome. Night eating syndrome is a disordered eating pattern characterized by recurrent eating episodes during the night. A person suffering from this disorder typically awakes during the night and starts eating. Individuals with night eating syndrome often consume a significant portion of their daily food during these nocturnal eating episodes. In the morning, they may experience a lack of appetite. Because these eating episodes happen at night, interrupting the normal sleep cycle, the night eating syndrome is also considered a sleep disorder. It affects approximately 1.5% of adults in the U.S., but 9% of patients seeking weight-loss treatments, and 16% of individuals with binge eating disorder (Tzischinsky et al., 2021) (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Characteristics of Night Eating Syndrome (NES)

Studies show that in parallel with the rising obesity rates, there is a continued decline in sleep duration in industrialized countries (Greer et al., 2013). What happens to our brain that makes us change our food-related behavior when we lack sleep?

In parallel with the rising obesity rates, there is a continued decline in sleep duration in industrialized countries

The current study

Study author Stephanie M. Greer and her colleagues wanted to find out. There is an abundance of research findings showing that lack of sleep changes our food-related behavior in a way that can lead to weight gain and obesity. Yet, study authors note in spite of this, the neural mechanisms through which this is achieved remain unknown (Greer et al., 2013).

Discovering these mechanisms would allow researchers to understand the link between sleep loss and obesity and potentially devise ways in which individuals could appropriately regulate dietary intake, thus preventing obesity. They conducted a study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and focusing on cortical and subcortical regions of the brain, which are instrumental in food desire and evaluating food-related stimuli (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Cortical and subcortical regions of the brain involved in food desire and evaluation

These areas were the anterior insular cortex, lateral orbital frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala, and the ventral striatum. The three cortex regions all have established roles in determining the value of various food cues, determining our food choices, and integrating various food features (e.g., odor or flavor) to create food preferences. The amygdala and the ventral striatum are strongly implicated in governing our motivation to eat. Activity in the ventral striatum can accurately predict immediate food intake, binge eating, and weight gain.

The study procedure

Study participants were 23 healthy adults who agreed to abstain from drugs, alcohol, and caffeine for three days before the start of the study. They also kept a regular sleep schedule (7-9 hours per night) during this period. Thirteen participants were female. The average age of participants was 21 years, and they were of normal weight.

Each participant completed two experimental sessions – a night of normal sleep in the study authors’ lab monitored by polysomnography equipment and a night of total sleep deprivation (a night during which he/she did not sleep) monitored by lab personnel and by wrist actinography (a device detecting movements of the wrist that can be used to infer whether a person is sleeping). During the sleep deprivation night, participants had a snack around 2:30-3:00 am. The two nights were at least seven days apart.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging and the food-desire task

Participants completed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) sessions the morning after each experimental night. During the scan, participants completed a food-desire task. The task consisted of 80 pictures of food (without packaging) the researchers collected online. The food items were evenly distributed into five categories – salty, sweet, starchy, fruit, or dairy, and varied in calorie content. The two imaging sessions used the same 80 items with different pictures.

Participants’ task was to rate each food item on a scale ranging from 1 to 4 on how much they wanted that particular food item right now. Researchers did not tell them about the study hypotheses nor the calorie contents of the food items. They told participants that they have two of the shown food items in the lab and that each participant will receive the food item he/she rated higher. Researchers did this to increase the likelihood that participants would rate the food items according to their preferences (see Figure 4).

%learn about nutrition mental health %The Center for Nutritional Psychology — Study Procedure Nutrition psychology course (Greer, 2013)

Figure 4. Study procedure (Greer, 2013)

Sleep deprivation diminished activity in the three cortical regions

The activity in the three studied cortex regions was much lower when participants did not sleep (the sleep deprivation night) compared to the night when they slept well. Participants’ overall food desire also increased. The decrease in activity was the most pronounced in the anterior cingulate region.

Activity in the amygdala region increased after the sleepless night

In contrast to the decrease in the cortex activity, the activity in the amygdala brain region in response to desirable food items increased after the sleepless nights when a participant saw a picture of a food item they desired (in the food-desire task taken during brain imaging).

Knowing the function of the amygdala, this increased activity likely indicates increased salience of the food items. After the sleepless night, desirable food items more easily capture participants’ attention. Interestingly, self-reported hunger levels were not different after the two experimental nights (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Research Findings

Sleep deprivation increases the desirability of high-calorie food items

After the sleepless night, participants found high-calorie food items much more desirable than the ratings they gave them after the night when they slept normally. However, there were no changes in the desirability of low-calorie items. As a consequence of these changes, the total calorie content of all wanted food items taken together was much higher after the sleepless night. The difference between the food item selections from the two nights was 600 calories on average.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that sleep deprivation blunts the activity of brain regions determining food desirability and choices. While areas responsible for higher-order processes become less reactive to food, those governing our emotional reactions to food increase activity. Consequently, our food-related behaviors become less rational and more emotional when sleep-deprived.

We become more prone to eating tasty food. Since tasty and emotionally pleasing foods also tend to be rich in calories, the calorie intake also increases. The described mechanism explains how sleep loss can lead to the development or maintenance of obesity. Because of this, it is important that treatments for obesity or plans for maintaining a healthy weight also consider this mechanism and include sufficient and undisturbed sleep as one of the factors necessary for maintaining a healthy weight and overall health (see Figure 6).

Figure 6. Sleep deprivation and dietary intake behavior

The paper ”The impact of sleep deprivation on food desire in the human brain” was authored by Stephanie M. Greer, Andrea N. Goldstein, and Matthew P. Walker.

Find more studies on the Diet-Sleep Relationship in CNP’s Nutritional Psychology Research Library “Diet, Sleep and Fatigue” Research Category.

References

Bermingham, K. M., May, A., Asnicar, F., Capdevila, J., Leeming, E. R., Franks, P. W., Valdes, A. M., Wolf, J., Hadjigeorgiou, G., Delahanty, L. M., Segata, N., Spector, T. D., & Berry, S. E. (2023). Snack quality and snack timing are associated with cardiometabolic blood markers: the ZOE PREDICT study. European Journal of Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-023-03241-6

Greer, S. M., Goldstein, A. N., & Walker, M. P. (2013). The impact of sleep deprivation on food desire in the human brain. Nature Communications, 4. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3259

Hillman, D. R., & Lack, L. C. (2013). Public health implications of sleep loss: The community burden. Medical Journal of Australia, 199(8), S7–S10. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja13.10620

Lent, M. R., Atwood, M., Bennett, W. L., Woolf, T. B., Martin, L., Zhao, D., Goheer, A. A., Song, S., McTigue, K. M., Lehmann, H. P., Holzhauer, K., & Coughlin, J. W. (2022). Night eating, weight, and health behaviors in adults participating in the Daily24 study. Eating Behaviors, 45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2022.101605

Tzischinsky, O., Latzer, I. T., Alon, S., & Latzer, Y. (2021). Sleep quality and eating disorder-related psychopathologies in patients with night eating syndrome and binge eating disorders. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10194613

Wingelaar-Jagt, Y. Q., Bottenheft, C., Riedel, W. J., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2023). Effects of modafinil and caffeine on night-time vigilance of air force crewmembers: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 37(2), 172–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811221142568

What is “Food Noise” and How Does it Influence the DMHR?

Posted on January 22, 2024January 24, 2024 by CNP Super Admin

Patients struggling with food intake regulation often report obsessively thinking about food for prolonged periods and spending lots of time doing things related to food.
A study published in Nutrients proposes that this phenomenon of heightened reactivity to food cues be termed “food noise.”
It proposes a conceptual model describing factors linking food cues and consequences of heightened food cue reactivity, including ways to regulate it.

Traditionally, people widely believed that individuals gain weight simply because they are not careful and eat too much. Religious teachings, for example, speak about gluttony, one of the deadly sins symbolizing primarily excessive or overindulgent eating. In this view, people become overweight more or less because their willpower is not strong enough to avoid the temptation to overeat. Similarly, to lose weight, they need to “tough it out” and show sufficient willpower to resist the urge to overeat.

In this view, people become overweight more or less because their willpower is not strong enough to avoid the temptation to overeat. They need to “tough it out” and show sufficient willpower to resist the urge to overeat

However, we are all aware of people who fail to lose weight or maintain healthy body weight in spite of significant efforts. Others maintain a healthy physique without paying much attention to their diets.

Given these observations, can being overweight or maintaining a healthy weight really be just a matter of willpower? Scientific discoveries made in recent decades say otherwise.

Can being overweight or maintaining a healthy weight really just be just a matter of willpower?

What causes obesity?
The obvious answer is that obesity results from consuming more calories than one expends. However, things are far from being so simple. For instance, our food intake is guided by processes in our brain that tell us when we need to eat and when to stop eating. This is the case in humans and most other complex species (Wilding, 2001).

The mechanism of hunger creates a sensation of hunger when our body needs nutrients and a sensation of satiety when we eat enough. These sensations make us start or stop eating. However, studies show that this hunger-satiety regulation system is dysregulated in many individuals. This dysregulation can give rise to dysfunctional eating behaviors. When this happens, individuals may either consume less nutrients than they need, as observed in the case of anorexia, or more than their body needs, contributing to overweight and obesity (Pujol et al., 2021) (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. The Hunger-Satiety Regulation System

The food intake regulation system
The brain’s hypothalamus region regulates food intake through a complex system of neural circuits. However, this neural network in the hypothalamus interacts with many other systems of the body, such as the limbic system, which governs emotions and motivations related to eating. Higher cognitive processes, mediated by regions like the prefrontal cortex, play a crucial role in food choices and portion control decision-making. Furthermore, hormonal signals from the gastrointestinal tract, such as leptin and ghrelin, contribute to the body’s overall energy balance and influence the hypothalamus in modulating hunger and satiety cues. This intricate interplay among neural circuits, emotional centers, cognitive functions, and hormonal systems collectively orchestrates the complex regulation of food intake (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. The brain’s food intake regulation system

As with any highly complex system, many things can lead to the dysregulation of the food intake control system. Studies show that genetic factors, such as those leading to the deficit of leptin, the hormone responsible for inhibiting feelings of hunger, can dysregulate this system and lead to obesity. Similar effects were observed in individuals with damage to the hypothalamus regions of the brain (Wilding, 2001).

The strong increase in the share of obese individuals throughout the world in recent decades, the obesity pandemic, has pointed to additional factors leading to the dysregulation of the food intake control system. Studies find that diets based on certain types of food, such as highly processed foods or foods high in fat and sugars, dysregulate food intake, leading to obesity (Hedrih, 2023). Experiments show that feeding mice high-fat diets disrupts their food intake regulation and makes them develop obesity (Ikemoto et al., 1996), but also changes certain structures in the brains of their offspring (Lippert et al., 2020).

Diets based on highly processed foods or foods high in fat and sugars disrupt the regulation of food intake, consequently contributing to the development of obesity

Finally, research suggests that human food consumption is influenced not solely by a deficiency of nutrients in the body but frequently by learned food cues from childhood and throughout life (Hedrih, 2023a; Schulte et al., 2019). These are the associations between our perceptions of food items and our experiences (taste, smell, etc.) of them. New studies indicate that people might differ in how reactive they are to these food queues, with some people being very much overwhelmed by them. This led researchers to coin the term “food noise” to describe this situation (Hayashi et al., 2023).

Humans consume food often in response to food cues learned in childhood and throughout life

What is ‘food noise’?
Our brains excel at triggering motivational responses when exposed to food cues (a concept involved with the term “availability” within nutritional psychology) (Morphew-Lu et al., 2021). Simply put, our brains are very good at making us desire the foods and beverages we see, smell, hear, or sense in another way (Hayashi et al., 2023). For example, when we smell the aroma of freshly baked pastries, hear the sizzle of bacon in a skillet, or see desserts at a party or in a grocery store, we often develop a desire to consume that food. This responsiveness to food cues constitutes our reactivity to them.

New studies indicate that people might differ in how reactive they are to food cues, with some people being very much overwhelmed by them

From an evolutionary perspective, being reactive to food cues has contributed to the survival of humans in times of food scarcity. It made them use opportunities to meet their nutritional needs whenever they arose, regardless of whether their body needed those nutrients at that very moment or not. However, in modern industrial societies, highly palatable and energy-dense foods are widely available, and the environment tends to be full of food cues. These include foods exposed for sale in grocery stores, food supplies kept at home, and many food advertisements found across various media channels.

People vary in their responsiveness to food cues. While some individuals can easily overlook the numerous food cues they encounter, others exhibit heightened reactivity. The latter group can be described as experiencing ‘food noise.’

People vary in their responsiveness to food cues

The authors of this paper, Daisuke Hayashi and his colleagues, define food noise as “heightened and/or persistent manifestations of food cue reactivity, often leading to food-related intrusive thoughts and maladaptive eating behaviors.” Individuals experiencing food noise find themselves constantly thinking about food, checking food ordering websites, and being obsessively preoccupied with food. This then easily leads them to act on these thoughts, resulting in overeating, binge eating, and weight gain as a consequence.

Food noise is defined as “heightened and/or persistent manifestations of food cue reactivity, often leading to food-related intrusive thoughts and maladaptive eating behaviors”

How was food noise discovered?
In recent decades, the global population has witnessed a significant increase in the prevalence of overweight and obese individuals (Wong et al., 2022). This obesity epidemic has coincided with a surge in the number of people affected by type 2 diabetes, a chronic condition characterized by ineffective cell responses to insulin (the hormone that facilitates glucose uptake into cells of the body). This inefficiency leads to impaired glucose absorption and elevated blood sugar levels. Health professionals widely prescribe a type of medicine called GLP-1Ras or glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists to treat type 2 diabetes. GLP-1RAs mimic the action of the glucagon-like peptide-1 hormone, helping to lower blood sugar levels. They do this by increasing insulin production and reducing glucagon secretion, a hormone that raises blood sugar levels, through several other mechanisms (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. GLP-1Ras mechanism

Very soon after the use of GLP-1Ras became widespread medical practitioners noted that these medicines often also promote weight loss. Scientists identified multiple physiological mechanisms through which this effect can be achieved. However, many practitioners noted that patients using GLP-1Ras sometimes report that the “food noise” in their heads has decreased after using them. They reported that they stopped constantly thinking about foods or the next meal they planned to consume. Generally, the amount of thinking about food or food cue reactivity has been reduced (Hayashi et al., 2023).

The Cue–Influencer–Reactivity–Outcome (CIRO) model of food cue reactivity
Based on these and various other findings, Daisuke Hayashi and his colleagues proposed a conceptual model of factors influencing food cue reactivity. They called this model CIRO, which is short for the Cue–Influencer–Reactivity–Outcome. This model proposes that food cues can be internal, like hunger signals coming from the body or thoughts of food and eating, or external, like sensory cues (e.g., sight or smell of food), environmental (e.g., being in a place associated with eating like a restaurant or a cafeteria), or social (e.g., other people talking about food) (more about the Diet Sensory-Perceptual Relationship and the Diet-Interoceptive Relationship can be found in NP 110: Introduction to Nutritional Psychology Methods) (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Conceptual model of factors influencing food cue reactivity (Adapted from: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15224809)

The presence of these food cues elicits different degrees of food cue reactivity. These degrees depend on various factors that modify food cue reactivity. Some of these factors are constant. These include the genetic makeup of the individual, weight status, appetitive traits, food preferences, and emotion regulation and coping skills. Others are transient. These include the time of day (e.g., a person will likely be more reactive to food cues at a time he/she usually eats), the environment, physical activity, sleep (lack of sleep tends to make one more prone to eat), stress, emotional state, or appetite-regulating hormones (e.g., level of leptin, ghrelin and other hormones in circulation in the body).

The presence of these food cues elicits different degrees of food cue reactivity

Depending on the combination of present food cues and these modifying factors, the body will react more or less strongly (or not at all) to these cues. The manifestations of this reactivity can be biological or psychological. Biological manifestations include changes in heart rate, blood pressure, skin conductance, gastric activity, salivation, or region-specific brain activity. Psychological manifestations include increased attention to food (attention bias), food craving, anticipation of relief (if food is eaten), anticipation of positive reinforcement, preoccupation with food, and awareness of physiological hunger (the feeling of hunger).

Food cue reactivity consequently leads to a series of outcomes, some of which are short-term, while others are long-term. Short-term outcomes of heightened food reactivity include increased food intake and food-seeking behaviors. Long-term outcomes represent the results of repeated instances of exposure to food cues accompanied by heightened food cue reactivity (see Figure 5).

Figure 5. Food cue reactivity outcomes (Adapted from: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15224809)

This involves long-term behavioral outcomes that appear over longer periods. For example, it includes making food cues more powerful in encouraging overeating, a phenomenon known as ‘incentive sensitization’ (being extra sensitive to rewards). It also involves the direct connection between food cues and food intake, referred to as ‘Pavlovian conditioning’ (similar to how we associate a bell ringing with mealtime).

Moreover, food-seeking behaviors may intensify due to the rewarding nature of highly palatable foods, a process called ‘operant conditioning’ (like training ourselves to want certain things). Over time, heightened reactivity to food cues in environments with abundant food can lead to weight gain or regain, disordered eating, and a decline in overall quality of life, as illustrated in Figure 5 above.

Food-seeking behaviors can also become more pronounced due to the rewarding nature of highly palatable foods (operant conditioning)

Conclusion
This conceptual paper proposes the concept of “food noise,” defined as heightened and/or persistent manifestations of reactivity to food cues, often leading to food-related intrusive thoughts and maladaptive eating behaviors. In modern societies, where food abundance is prevalent , heightened food reactivity, i.e., food noise, may induce both biological and psychological changes that contribute to weight gain, disordered eating, and obesity.

Food noise may induce both biological and psychological changes that contribute to weight gain, disordered eating, and obesity

The paper’s authors also proposed a theoretical CIRO model of food cue reactivity that identifies factors that modify food cue reactivity. Controlling these factors can reduce food noise and thus help individuals maintain a healthy and balanced diet and a healthy weight. Most notably, the model proposes that food noise can be reduced by modifying the environment to reduce people’s exposure to food cues and influencing the transient factors that modify food cue reactivity.

The review paper “What Is Food Noise? A Conceptual Model of Food Cue Reactivity” was authored by Daisuke Hayashi, Caitlyn Edwards, Jennifer A. Emond, Diane Gilbert-Diamond, Melissa Butt, Andrea Rigby, and Travis D. Masterson.

More about dietary intake behaviors and neural mechanisms can be found in online courses through CNP entitled NP 110: Introduction to Nutritional Psychology Methods, NP 120 Part I: Microbes in our Gut: An Evolutionary Journey into the World of the Microbiota Gut-Brain Axis and the DMHR, and NP 120 Part II: Gut-Brain Diet-Mental Health Connection: Exploring the Role of Microbiota from Neurodevelopment to Neurodegeneration.

References
Hayashi, D., Edwards, C., Emond, J. A., Gilbert-Diamond, D., Butt, M., Rigby, A., & Masterson, T. D. (2023). What Is Food Noise? A Conceptual Model of Food Cue Reactivity. In Nutrients (Vol. 15, Issue 22). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15224809

Hedrih, V. (2023a). Are Hunger Cues Learned in Childhood? CNP Articles. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/are-hunger-cues-learned-in-childhood/

Hedrih, V. (2023b). Scientists Propose that Ultra-Processed Foods be Classified as Addictive Substances. CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/scientists-propose-that-ultra-processed-foods-be-classified-as-addictive-substances/

Ikemoto, S., Takahashi, M., Tsunoda, N., Maruyama, K., Itakura, H., & Ezaki, O. (1996). High-fat diet-induced hyperglycemia and obesity in mice: Differential effects of dietary oils. Metabolism, 45(12), 1539–1546. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0026-0495(96)90185-7

Lippert, R. N., Hess, S., Klemm, P., Burgeno, L. M., Jahans-Price T, Walton, M. E., Kloppenburg, P., & Brüning, J. C. (2020). Maternal high-fat diet during lactation reprograms the dopaminergic circuitry in mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 130(7), 3761–3776.

Morphew-Lu, E., Lokken, K., Doswell, C., Protogerous, C., Greunke, S. (2021). Module 3: The Diet-Behavior Relationship. In E. Lu (Ed.), NP 110: Introduction to Nutritional Psychology. The Center for Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/np110/

Pujol, J., Blanco-Hinojo, L., Martínez-Vilavella, G., Deus, J., Pérez-Sola, V., & Sunyer, J. (2021). Dysfunctional Brain Reward System in Child Obesity. Cerebral Cortex, 31, 4376–4385. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhab092

Schulte, E. M., Yokum, S., Jahn, A., & Gearhardt, A. N. (2019). Food Cue Reactivity in Food Addiction: a Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study HHS Public Access. Physiol Behav, 208, 112574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112574

Wilding, J. P. H. (2001). Causes of obesity. Practical Diabetes International, 18(8), 288–292. https://doi.org/10.1002/PDI.277

Wong, M. C., Mccarthy, C., Fearnbach, N., Yang, S., Shepherd, J., & Heymsfield, S. B. (2022). Emergence of the obesity epidemic: 6-decade visualization with humanoid avatars. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 115(4), 1189–1193. https://doi.org/10.1093/AJCN/NQAC005

Can Broccoli Sprouts Alleviate Symptoms of Bowel Inflammation?

Posted on January 15, 2024January 17, 2024 by CNP Super Admin

A study published in mSystems found that feeding mice a diet consisting of 10% steamed broccoli sprouts alleviated the symptoms of experimentally induced bowel inflammation
These mice gained more weight during the study period
The mice showed lower inflammation indicators and richer bacterial communities in all parts of the gut compared to mice with induced bowel inflammation but on a regular diet

Inflammatory bowel diseases

Inflammatory bowel diseases constitute a group of chronic, inflammatory disorders primarily affecting the gastrointestinal tract. The two main types of these diseases are Crohn’s and ulcerative colitis. Both conditions arise from an abnormal immune response in which the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells lining the digestive tract, leading to chronic inflammation (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Two main inflammatory bowel diseases

Symptoms of inflammatory bowel diseases can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, fatigue, and sometimes rectal bleeding. These diseases are complex conditions usually caused by multiple factors. Genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and immune system dysregulation play a role in their development (Ramos & Papadakis, 2019). While there is currently no cure for inflammatory bowel diseases, various treatments such as medications, dietary modifications, and, in some cases, surgery can help manage symptoms and improve the quality of life for individuals suffering from them (Holman et al., 2023).

Could inflammatory bowel disease symptoms be improved through diet?

Studies indicate that between 0.3% and 0.5% of people in Europe and North America suffer from inflammatory bowel diseases (Ng et al., 2017). While these percentages might seem small, they represent millions of individuals worldwide. Considering that these diseases’ symptoms are often devastating, it is quite understandable that finding ways to treat inflammatory bowel diseases has attracted much research attention.

A significant portion of this research focused on identifying dietary elements that could alleviate the symptoms of these diseases because changing a diet is considered an easy way to address symptoms if a viable dietary approach existed. In this regard, cruciferous vegetables are seen as a promising avenue of research, as their consumption is associated with reduced inflammation and a lower risk of cancer (Holman et al., 2023; Tilg, 2015). Some common cruciferous vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, kale, and collard greens.

Broccoli sprouts

Broccoli sprouts are young, edible shoots that grow from germinated broccoli seeds. They are known for their high nutritional value, particularly for being rich in glucosinolates –compounds that can be converted into bioactive substances with potential health benefits, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The presence of glucosinolates is particularly high in immature broccoli sprouts.

One of these bioactive substances is sulforaphane. Studies have shown that sulforaphane inhibits the action of certain immune factors responsible for the upregulation of proinflammatory proteins in the body, known as cytokines.

However, when broccoli is eaten raw, enzymes in it will convert most glucosinolates into an inactive substance. Steaming or cooking fresh broccoli sprouts alters these plant enzymes’ activity and leaves glucosinolates intact. This allows a specific type of gut bacteria to convert glucosinolates into sulforaphane (Holman et al., 2023) (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Broccoli sprout properties

The current study

Study author Johanna M. Holman and her colleagues aimed to investigate whether adding steamed broccoli sprouts to mice’s diets could improve chronic, relapsing colitis symptoms. Simultaneously, they wanted to see how these sprouts affect gut microbiota composition under the same conditions.

Gut microbiota, also known as gut flora or gut microbiome, is the diverse community of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and archaea, that inhabit the gastrointestinal tract of humans and other animals. They play a crucial role in digestion and metabolism, being also involved in several other bodily functions (Carbia et al., 2023; Leclercq et al., 2020).

The procedure

The study was conducted on 40 mice divided into 2×2 groups. Researchers fed one group of mice a regular diet while adding steamed broccoli sprouts to the other group’s diet. Researchers chemically induced bowel inflammation (colitis) in one-half of the mice from each group, while the other half did not undergo this induction. In that way, there were four groups, with ten mice in each – the group fed a regular diet with induced colitis, the group fed a regular diet without induced colitis, the group fed a diet with broccoli sprouts without induced colitis, and the group fed a diet with broccoli sprouts with induced colitis. The study started when the mice were seven weeks old and continued for 34 days.

Researchers prepared the broccoli sprouts for 10 minutes in a double boiler. They then cooled the steamed broccoli sprouts down and stored them in a -80oC freezer until they freeze-dried. Researchers then ground the freeze-dried broccoli sprouts into a fine powder and added the powder to the regular mice food, constituting 10% of the food by weight (see Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1. Study Procedure (Part I)

Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in water

The study authors added dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) to the water two groups (group I & group 3) of mice drank to induce colitis. When consumed, dextran sodium sulfate disrupts the expression of certain proteins in the cells lining the intestines. This disruption causes the cells lining the intestine walls to become permeable, leading to a leaky barrier. The leakiness of this barrier triggers a host of events that result in inflammation and symptoms similar to colitis in humans.

Researchers started putting dextran sodium sulfate in the water the mice drank starting from the 7th day of the study. Its concentration in water was 2.5%. They gave mice water with dextran sodium sulfate for five days. This was followed by a recovery period of 5-7 days (no dextran sodium sulfate in water), after which they repeated the procedure. There were three cycles during which water with dextran sodium sulfate was given to mice (Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2. Study procedure Part II (Dextran sodium sulfate consumption cycles)

Assessments

The study authors assessed the severity of symptoms caused by the treatment through a combination of factors, including the mice’s body weight, fecal consistency, and the presence of blood in feces. They collected fecal samples of these mice every 2-3 days and every day during periods when mice drank water with dextran sodium sulfate.

After the study period, mice were euthanized, and researchers studied gut microbiota contents in various places in mice’s digestive tracts using genetic techniques. They also determined various inflammation indicators (cytokines) levels from their blood (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Research Assessment

Broccoli sprouts alleviated the symptoms of colitis

Results showed that, during the study period, mice with induced colitis who ate a diet with broccoli sprouts gained more weight than mice with induced colitis on the regular diet. Although mice were still in their growth phase and expected to gain weight naturally, the first two cycles of dextran sodium sulfate treatments led to weight loss. However, mice on the broccoli sprout diet regained the lost weight by the beginning of the next cycle, while mice on the regular diet did not. At the end of the study, mice fed a regular diet with induced colitis had the lowest weight of all groups.

Mice with induced colitis who were fed a diet with broccoli sprouts had less pronounced symptoms of colitis and lower levels of some of the inflammation markers (proinflammatory cytokines IL-1 beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) compared to mice with induced colitis on the regular diet (see Figure 5).

Figure 5. Result analysis (Holman et al., 2023)

Broccoli sprouts protected against changed to bacterial community induced by colitis

Mice on a broccoli sprout diet with induced colitis had significantly more bacterial richness in their colon contents and on the colon walls (materials scraped from the colon) compared to mice with induced colitis on the regular diet. Comparing all four groups, results showed that the two groups that consumed diets with broccoli sprouts had higher bacterial richness in all gut locations, with the most notable difference observed in the colon.
Further analysis showed that the gut bacterial community of mice with induced colitis that consumed a diet with broccoli sprouts differed in which bacterial species were present from those of mice with induced colitis that consumed the regular diet. This indicated that broccoli sprouts strongly protected against changes to bacterial communities induced by dextran sodium sulfate.

Conclusion

Overall, the study results show that adding steamed broccoli sprouts to the diet of mice alleviates the effects of chemically induced bowel inflammation – colitis, but also protects microbial communities in their guts from changes induced by the treatment designed to induce colitis. Bacterial richness in various locations in the gut was similar between mice with induced colitis consuming broccoli sprouts and mice without colitis on a regular diet.

Although these findings were obtained on mice using chemically induced bowel inflammation, similarities with human biochemistry and inflammatory bowel diseases might be sufficient for similar effects. Since broccoli sprouts are widely available and affordable food items, adding them to a diet might be an easily implementable way to reduce symptoms of inflammatory bowel diseases and protect the gut microbiome. Of course, further study is needed to confirm that the effects observed in this study would also be present in humans with inflammatory bowel diseases. However, adding broccoli sprouts to the diet is a promising strategy.

Since broccoli sprouts are widely available and affordable food items, adding them to a diet might be an easily implementable way to reduce symptoms of inflammatory bowel diseases and protect the gut microbiome

The paper “Steamed broccoli sprouts alleviate DSS-induced inflammation and retain gut microbial biogeography in mice” was authored by Johanna M. Holman, Louisa Colucci, Dorien Baudewyns, Joe Balkan, Timothy Hunt, Benjamin Hunt, Marissa Kinney, Lola Holcomb, Allesandra Stratigakis, Grace Chen, Peter L. Moses, Gary M. Mawe, Tao Zhang, Yanyan Li, and Suzanne L. Ishaq.

References
Carbia, C., Bastiaanssen, T. F. S., Iannone, F., García-cabrerizo, R., Boscaini, S., Berding, K., Strain, C. R., Clarke, G., Stanton, C., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2023). The Microbiome-Gut-Brain axis regulates social cognition & craving in young binge drinkers. EBioMedicine, (In press), 104442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104442

Holman, J. M., Colucci, L., Baudewyns, D., Balkan, J., Hunt, T., Hunt, B., Kinney, M., Holcomb, L., Stratigakis, A., Chen, G., Moses, P. L., Mawe, G. M., Zhang, T., Li, Y., & Ishaq, S. L. (2023). Steamed broccoli sprouts alleviate DSS-induced inflammation and retain gut microbial biogeography in mice. MSystems. https://doi.org/10.1128/msystems.00532-23

Leclercq, S., Le Roy, T., Furgiuele, S., Coste, V., Bindels, L. B., Leyrolle, Q., Neyrinck, A. M., Quoilin, C., Amadieu, C., Petit, G., Dricot, L., Tagliatti, V., Cani, P. D., Verbeke, K., Colet, J. M., Stärkel, P., de Timary, P., & Delzenne, N. M. (2020). Gut Microbiota-Induced Changes in β-Hydroxybutyrate Metabolism Are Linked to Altered Sociability and Depression in Alcohol Use Disorder. Cell Reports, 33(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CELREP.2020.108238

Ng, S. C., Shi, H. Y., Hamidi, N., Underwood, F. E., Tang, W., Benchimol, E. I., Pannacione, R., Ghosh, S., Wu, J. C. Y., Chan, F. K. L., Sung, J. J. Y., & Kaplan, G. G. (2017). Worldwide incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in the 21st century: a systematic review of population-based studies. The Lancet, 390(10114), 2769–2778.

Ramos, G. P., & Papadakis, K. A. (2019). Mechanisms of Disease: Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 94(1), 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2018.09.013

Tilg, H. (2015). Cruciferous vegetables: prototypic anti-inflammatory food components. Tilg Clinical Phytoscience, 1(10). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40816-015-0011-2

Does the Neighborhood You Live in Affect your Diet-Mental Health Relationship?

Posted on November 17, 2023January 12, 2024 by CNP Super Admin

Individuals in disadvantaged neighborhoods tend to have higher body mass index and perceived stress
fMRI scans of these individuals’ brains indicate disruptions in information processing flexibility in brain regions involved in processing rewards, regulating emotions, and higher cognitive functions
The link between neighborhood characteristics and these neural changes may be partially mediated by obesity, i.e., the body mass index, but not by stress levels (Kilpatrick et al., 2023)

When traveling through towns and cities, it’s noticeable that different areas vary significantly in their appearance and available amenities. Some neighborhoods boast well-maintained, larger, and aesthetically pleasing buildings, while others are defined by smaller, older structures showing signs of disrepair and neglect.

Affluent and disadvantaged neighborhoods
The first type of neighborhood tends to be cleaner, safer, and have better maintained public spaces. It will also have access to upscale amenities such as boutique shops, gourmet restaurants, and cultural attractions. The second type of neighborhood likely has higher crime rates and may have issues with litter and graffiti. There will be fewer local businesses and may lack various amenities. We typically call the first group affluent neighborhoods, while researchers refer to the second group as disadvantaged.

Individuals in disadvantaged neighborhoods typically have lower income levels, limited access to quality education, healthcare, employment opportunities, and substandard living conditions. These individuals often encounter systemic barriers to social mobility, resulting in a lack of access to essential services and readily available resources in more affluent areas (Woolley et al., 2008).

Living in disadvantaged neighborhoods is linked to higher health risks
Living in a disadvantaged neighborhood is linked to various adverse outcomes in the diet-mental health relationship (DMHR). Individuals living in these areas are at a higher risk of obesity due to the poor quality of foods available to them and environments that hamper physical activity (Saelens et al., 2012; Zick et al., 2009). Lower income levels among residents make them more likely to consume ultra-processed foods, a known contributor to obesity (Monteiro et al., 2019). Additionally, chronic stressors linked with living in disadvantaged neighborhoods might increase the desire for highly palatable foods, which are often unhealthy, as a coping response.

Living in a disadvantaged neighborhood is linked to various adverse outcomes in the diet-mental health relationship (DMHR)

Consequently, these factors are associated with adverse neural changes such as reduced brain volume and unfavorable changes in the structure and functioning of specific brain regions. These changes can disrupt the brain’s mechanisms for regulating food intake, leading to obesity and contributing to mental health disorders, such as depression. (Samuthpongtorn et al., 2023; Seabrook et al., 2023). The risks of health problems related to obesity, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and certain forms of cancer, are increased with the consumption of ultra-processed foods.

Figure 1. DMHR Risks of disadvantaged neighborhoods: Higher risk of obesity, increased desire, and consumption of ultra-processed foods/highly palatable foods. Changes in brain volume/structure/function, food intake regulation mechanisms, additional health problems: cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer.

Area deprivation index
Whether a neighborhood is considered affluent or disadvantaged is a matter of degree. Some neighborhoods are more disadvantaged, and some are more affluent than others. It can be thought of as a continuum. Researchers use the area deprivation indices to assess a specific geographical area’s socioeconomic disadvantage or affluence (such as a neighborhood).

Whether a neighborhood is considered affluent or disadvantaged is a matter of degree

These indices can be constructed differently, but they typically consider factors such as income, education, employment, housing conditions, and essential services available in the area. Areas with wealthier, more educated residents, better employment, improved housing conditions, and good access to essential services would be considered more affluent. Those with opposite characteristics would be considered more disadvantaged (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Area Deprivation Index features

The current study
Study author Lisa A. Kilpatrick, and her colleagues aimed to investigate the relationship between the area deprivation index (ADI) and the microstructure of the brain cortex, assessed by the T1w/T2w ratio. They also explored how body mass index and stress affect that link.

They hypothesized that individuals living in areas with worse area deprivation index values would likely have higher body mass indexes, be more prone to diets conducive to obesity, and experience higher stress levels. Consequently, these factors would negatively impact the microstructure of their brain, particularly in the areas related to processing rewards, regulating emotions, and cognition.

T1- and T2-weighted images and T1w/T2w ratio
T1-weighted (T1w) and T2-weighted (T2w) images are two types of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences used to visualize and differentiate various tissues within the human body. In neuroimaging, T1-weighted images provide excellent structural details and are used to highlight distinctions between various brain tissues, making them useful for visualizing specific areas of the brain. T2-weighted images emphasize differences in water content within the brain, making them valuable for detecting abnormalities like edema, inflammation, and lesions—areas where the brain tissue is damaged. They are also useful for assessing regions filled with cerebrospinal fluid. (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Identifying tissue microstructure alterations on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Researchers often compare signal intensities in these two types of images of the same brain area and calculate a measure called the T1w/T2w ratio. The T1w/T2w ratio can offer a more nuanced and quantitative understanding of the brain’s tissue properties, surpassing the insights provided by qualitative visual analysis alone. It can help researchers identify microstructural differences in the brain, areas where a certain disease is developing or present, regions with altered functionality, injuries, and other changes to the brain tissue.

In general, both a decrease and an increase in the T1w/T2w ratio in a brain region can indicate adverse developments in it, as it indicates that the tissue structure in that area differs from that observed in the brains of healthy individuals.

The procedure
The study involved 92 adults from the Los Angeles area, consisting of 27 men and 65 women. Between 2019 and 2022, participants underwent neuroimaging sessions encompassing T1w and T2w scanning. Details about their place of residence were also gathered. Participants were recruited using flyers and emails distributed through various channels. The mean age of participants was 28 years.

Participants underwent a stress assessment using the Perceived Stress scale and provided dietary information through the VioScreen Graphical Food Frequency System. Researchers measured their weight and height to calculate body mass index values.

Findings
Area deprivation index was linked with microstructural alterations in brain regions responsible for reward processing, emotion regulation, and higher cognition.

Participants living in more deprived areas, i.e., areas with worse area deprivation index values, had increased T1w/T2w ratios in brain regions involved in reward-related processing, emotional regulation, and higher cognition. These were observed in the medial prefrontal and cingulate regions – mainly at middle/superficial cortical levels.

They also had decreased T1w/T2w ratios in regions of the neural system involved in social interaction. The affected areas were supramarginal, middle temporal, and primary motor regions in mainly middle/deep cortical levels. Both increased and decreased T1w/T2w ratios can be interpreted as indicators of adverse changes to the microstructure of neural tissue in the affected areas. Consequently, this suggests that the functioning of these areas is not as optimal as in a healthy brain. (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Area deprivation and brain microstructure

Body mass index mediates the link between area deprivation and altered brain microstructure
The study authors created and tested a statistical model suggesting that living in a more disadvantaged area correlates with higher body mass index values and increased stress. According to this model, these factors contribute to pronounced changes in the T1w/T2w ratios in the brain regions where alterations were observed. In other words, they proposed that body mass index (i.e., being obese or overweight) and stress mediate the relationship between area disadvantage and the extent of changes to the microstructure of specific brain areas.

They proposed that body mass index (i.e., being obese or overweight) and stress mediate the relationship between area disadvantage and the extent of changes to the microstructure of specific brain areas

Analysis showed that although individuals living in more disadvantaged neighborhoods tend to experience higher stress levels, this does not lead to changes in the brain microstructure. On the other hand, this analysis confirmed that the link between area deprivation and the microstructure of specific brain areas is mediated by body mass index. However, the body mass index did not fully account for this link, indicating that additional factors likely contribute to the association between altered brain microstructure and area deprivation level.

Conclusion
Overall, the study showed that individuals living in more disadvantaged areas tend to have altered tissue structures in brain regions responsible for reward processing, emotion regulation, and cognition. These alterations to the tissue microstructure may disrupt the flexibility of information processing in these areas. Additionally, a significant portion of these brain changes is associated with obesity and likely connected to factors that contribute to obesity.

The study showed that individuals living in more disadvantaged areas tend to have altered tissue structures in brain regions responsible for reward processing, emotion regulation, and cognition

Due to the study’s design, it remains unclear whether life in disadvantaged neighborhoods leads to obesity and adverse changes in brain microstructure or if the altered brain microstructure restricts an individual’s ability to secure resources necessary for living in more affluent neighborhoods and avoid dietary behaviors that lead to obesity. While this will have to be explored in future research, it is important for both policymakers and the general public to be aware of the connections between life in disadvantaged neighborhoods and brain health.

The paper “Mediation of the association between disadvantaged neighborhoods and cortical microstructure by body mass index” was authored by Lisa A. Kilpatrick, Keying Zhang, Tien S. Dong, Gilbert C. Gee, Hiram Beltran-Sanchez, May Wang, Jennifer S. Labus, Bruce D. Naliboff, Emeran A. Mayer, and Arpana Gupta.

References
Kilpatrick, L. A., Zhang, K., Dong, T. S., Gee, G. C., Beltran-Sanchez, H., Wang, M., Labus, J. S., Naliboff, B. D., Mayer, E. A., & Gupta, A. (2023). Mediation of the association between disadvantaged neighborhoods and cortical microstructure by body mass index. Communications Medicine, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43856-023-00350-5

Monteiro, C. A., Cannon, G., Levy, R. B., Moubarac, J. C., Louzada, M. L. C., Rauber, F., Khandpur, N., Cediel, G., Neri, D., Martinez-Steele, E., Baraldi, L. G., & Jaime, P. C. (2019). Ultra-processed foods: What they are and how to identify them. In Public Health Nutrition (Vol. 22, Issue 5, pp. 936–941). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980018003762

Saelens, B. E., Sallis, J. F., Frank, L. D., Couch, S. C., Zhou, C., Colburn, T., Cain, K. L., Chapman, J., & Glanz, K. (2012). Obesogenic Neighborhood Environments, Child and Parent Obesity: The Neighborhood Impact on Kids Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42(5), e57–e64. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AMEPRE.2012.02.008

Seabrook, L. T., Naef, L., Baimel, C., Judge, A. K., Kenney, T., Ellis, M., Tayyab, T., Armstrong, M., Qiao, M., Floresco, S. B., & Borgland, S. L. (2023). Disinhibition of the orbitofrontal cortex biases decision-making in obesity. Nature Neuroscience, 26(1), 92–106. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-022-01210-6

Woolley, M. E., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Gilster, M. E., Karb, R. A., Gant, L. M., Reischl, T. M., & Alaimo, K. (2008). Neighborhood Social Capital, Poor Physical Conditions, and School Achievement. Children & Schools, 30(3), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1093/CS/30.3.133

Zick, C. D., Smith, K. R., Fan, J. X., Brown, B. B., Yamada, I., & Kowaleski-Jones, L. (2009). Running to the Store? The relationship between neighborhood environments and the risk of obesity. Social Science & Medicine, 69(10), 1493–1500. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOCSCIMED.2009.08.032

Risk Factors and Prevalence of Eating Disorders in Male Athletes

Posted on October 28, 2023November 7, 2023 by CNP Super Admin

There are many factors that can contribute to the breakdown of a healthy relationship between an athlete’s diet and mental health, putting them at risk for Eating Disorders (ED). In fact, ED are one of the most common psychiatric pathologies in elite athletes (Karrer et al., 2020).

ED are defined as “behavioral conditions characterized by severe and persistent disturbance in eating behaviors and associated distressing thoughts and emotions” (American Psychiatric Association, 2021). Athletes of both sexes are more likely than their non-athlete peers to develop eating disorders (Martinsen & Sundgot-Borgen, 2013; Mancine et al., 2020).

However, the prevalence of these disorders in male athletes is largely overlooked, as most research is directed towards ED in female athletes (Karrer et al., 2020), and these disorders are stereotyped as a “female problem” (Eichstadt et al., 2020). This commonly held stereotype, male gender norms, and the athletic identity of a male being “strong, stoic, and self-sacrificing” may deter male athletes who are suffering with these disorders from seeking help (Eichstadt et al., 2020).

The prevalence of these disorders in male athletes is largely overlooked, most research is directed towards ED in female athletes

There are several gender-specific differences related to the prevalence, risk factors, and potential interventions for ED in athletes. This article aims to shed light on the specificities of ED in male athletes to increase awareness and education for coaches, trainers, parents, and the athletes themselves.

Prevalence and Risk Factors
Most research assessing the risk factors of ED in athletes has been examined primarily in female athletes, but there have been a few studies looking specifically at ED in male athlete populations.

About 20% of male athletes adopt risk behaviors for eating disorders (RBED) as a means to improve their body composition (Fortes et al., 2020). Improved sport performance is the most frequently stated reason for dieting among male athletes, with between 84-91% of elite athletes believing that decreased weight could be attributed to better sport performance (Karrer et al., 2020). These risk behaviors can include long periods without food intake, using medication for appetite suppressant or diuretic effects, wearing clothing that contributes to extra dehydration, and self-induced vomiting (Fortes et al., 2020) (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Prevalence and risk factors associated with ED in male athletes

There are several risk factors that are associated with the prevalence of ED in male athletes. For example, male athletes who participate in “weight-sensitive” sports may be at higher risk for developing ED than male athletes who participate in non-weight sensitive sports (Karrer et al., 2020). Athletes who compete in a sport, such as wrestling, that divides athletes into “weight classes” report more psychological pressure to be lean, a higher drive for thinness, higher levels of dietary constraint, and higher levels of bulimic behaviors than athletes who competed in less weight-sensitive sports, such as soccer or other team sports (Karrer et al., 2020).

Athletes who compete in sports such as wrestling, that divided into “weight classes,” reported more psychological pressure to be lean

One study found up to 50% of male athletes who participated in weight-sensitive sports had disordered eating (DE) (Rouselet et al., 2017). The pressures for these athletes to enter and remain in a specific weight class may “normalize” certain practices that would be considered DE. The male athletes who suffer from these disorders are at risk for being overlooked, and sometimes even positively reinforced, for these dangerous behaviors (Eichstadt et al., 2020).

One study found up to 50% of male athletes who participated in weight-sensitive sports had disordered eating (DE)

Psychological features of athletes may also serve as a risk factor for developing ED, DE and RBED. Whereas ED involve psychological disorders that are recognized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5 (DSM-5), DE is a condition that involves behaviors similar to those found in ED to a lesser intensity or frequency, but that can still be dangerous to the individual (Fuller, 2022).

Studies show a direct linear relationship between competitive anxiety, defined as “the tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening and to respond to them with feelings of apprehension and tension” (Martens, 1977), and risk behaviors for eating disorders (RBED) in male athletes. Specifically, the stress perception an athlete can feel both during competition, and also the negative thoughts about the competition, were associated with the “triggering” of RBED (Fortes et al., 2020). Other psychological risk factors can include low self-esteem (Dakanalis et al., 2016), depression (Grossbard et al., 2013), and the fear of negative evaluation (Dakanalis et al., 2014) (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Psychological risk factors in athletes

Consequences of ED in Male Athletes
The literature on athlete’s health and performance consequences of ED is mainly focused on female athletes, although males also suffer health consequences. These consequences may be harder to recognize in males, as they don’t have the obvious physical symptoms of low energy availability (EA) such as amenorrhea in female athletes (Karrer et al., 2020), and are not yet well understood (Mountjoy et al., 2018).

Some health concerns that have been identified in male athletes include reduction in testosterone (Mountjoy et al., 2018) and reduced bone mineral mass (Karrer et al., 2020). In addition to the physical health challenges, low testosterone, DE, depression, and stress may affect each other reciprocally (Karrer et al., 2020). Furthermore, EDs have the highest fatality rate of any mental health disorder, which is shown to be even higher in men than it is for women. One in five patients with anorexia nervosa, a type of ED, dies by suicide (Markey et al., 2022) (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Consequences of ED in Male Athletes

EDs have the highest fatality rate of any mental health disorder

Treatment and Prevention for ED in Male Athletes
Because of the dire consequences and outcomes that accompany EDs, it is necessary to ensure proper treatment for athletes who are suffering from these disorders. However, the ability to recognize and report these disorders in athletes, especially males, is challenging. Studies suggest that the current tools that are used to assess eating disorders among the general population are not appropriate for use with athletes for several reasons (Rousselet et al., 2017).

Current tools used to assess eating disorders among the general population are not appropriate for use with athletes for several reasons

The preoccupation with dieting and food behaviors that is generally seen as “disordered” may be part of the sporting culture, and therefore may not always point to ED (Karrer et al., 2020). Also, BMI which is often used as an indicator for ED may be skewed for athletes, as increased muscle mass will increase an athlete’s BMI, regardless of their body fat percentage (Karrer et al., 2020). In other words, an athlete with a low body fat percentage may be suffering from ED, but will not be diagnosed as such because their muscle mass gives the illusion of an elevated BMI, and therefore they will not meet the criteria. And finally, male athletes are likely to underreport their struggles with ED in self-report questionnaires (Rousselet et al., 2017).

Because of these challenges with recognizing ED in male athletes, it may be important to equip athletes with the skills necessary to appropriately confront these conditions. Some researchers are claiming that coping skills may be able to mediate the relationship between competitive anxiety and RBED in athletes. Helping athletes develop coping skills to manage their competitive anxiety under stressful conditions is a key concept of sport psychology training.

Coping skills may be able to mediate the relationship between competitive anxiety and RBED in athletes

These skills help athletes to regulate their emotions that are caused by stressors, such as a big game or competition (Pons et al., 2018). The use of coping strategies in athletes has been shown to mediate the relationship between competitive anxiety and negative emotions, and promote adaptive behaviors, in an effort to improve sport performance (Wadey et al., 2014; Pons et al., 2018). Beyond improvement in performance, coping skills may be able to be used as a tool to help athletes avoid RBED (Fortes et al., 2020).

Coping strategies in athletes mediate the relationship between competitive anxiety and negative emotions, improving sports performance

Although this may be one tool, the use of coping skills should not be the only preventative and treatment measure for athletes who are suffering from ED. The International Olympic Committee releases regular consensus statements that reflect the updated information on treatment options available for athletes who suffer from ED.

How Coaches and Sport Psychology Professionals Can Help
Despite the lack of recognition in research, male athletes are at risk for ED, DE, and RBED. By understanding certain risk factors that contribute to the development of RBED, such as sport type and psychological factors, parents, coaches, and sport psychology professionals may be able to take appropriate and necessary action to help athletes who may be at risk for developing such disorders.

References

American Psychiatric Association (2021). What Are Eating Disorders? https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/eating-disorders/what-are-eating-disorders

Dakanalis, A., Clerici, M., Caslini, M., Gaudio, S., Serino, S., Riva, G., & Carrà, G. (2016). Predictors of initiation and persistence of recurrent binge eating and inappropriate weight compensatory behaviors in college men. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49(6), 581–590. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22535

Dakanalis, A., Timko, C. A., Favagrossa, L., Riva, G., Zanetti, M. A., & Clerici, M. (2014). Why Do Only a Minority of Men Report Severe Levels of Eating Disorder Symptomatology, When so Many Report Substantial Body Dissatisfaction? Examination of Exacerbating Factors. Eating Disorders, 22(4), 292–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/10640266.2014.898980

Eichstadt, M., Luzier, J., Cho, D., & Weisenmuller, C. (2020). Eating Disorders in Male Athletes. Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach, 12(4), 327–333. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738120928991

Fortes, L. D. S., Nascimento Junior, J. R. A. D., Freire, G. L. M., & Ferreira, M. E. C. (2020b). Does coping mediate the relationship between competitive anxiety and eating disorders in athletes? Psicologia – Teoria e Prática, 22(3). https://doi.org/10.5935/1980-6906/psicologia.v22n3p74-91

Fuller, K. (2022, June 29). Difference Between Disordered Eating and Eating Disorders. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/difference-between-disordered-eating-and-eating-disorders-5184548

Grossbard, J. R., Atkins, D. C., Geisner, I. M., & Larimer, M. E. (2013). Does depressed mood moderate the influence of drive for thinness and muscularity on eating disorder symptoms among college men? Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(3), 281–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028913

Karrer, Y., Halioua, R., Mötteli, S., Iff, S., Seifritz, E., Jäger, M., & Claussen, M. C. (2020b). Disordered eating and eating disorders in male elite athletes: a scoping review. BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine, 6(1), e000801. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000801

Mancine, R., Kennedy, S., Stephan, P., & Ley, A. (2020). Disordered Eating and Eating Disorders in Adolescent Athletes. Spartan Medical Research Journal. https://doi.org/10.51894/001c.11595

Markey, C. (2022). Eating Disorders Affect Boys and Men Too. U.S. & World Report News. https://health.usnews.com/health-news/blogs/eat-run/articles/eating-disorders-and-body-image-issues-in-boys-and-men

Martens, R. (1977). Sport Competition Anxiety Test. Human Kinetics Publishers.

Martisen, M., & Sundgot-Borgen, J. (2013). Higher Prevalence of Eating Disorders among Adolescent Elite Athletes than Controls. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 45(6), 1188–1197. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318281a939

Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J. K., Burke, L. M., Ackerman, K. E., Blauwet, C., Constantini, N., Lebrun, C., Lundy, B., Melin, A. K., Meyer, N. L., Sherman, R. T., Tenforde, A. S., Klungland Torstveit, M., & Budgett, R. (2018). IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): 2018 update. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(11), 687–697. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099193

Rousselet M, Guerineau B, Paruit MC, et al. Disordered eating in French high-level athletes: association with type of sport, doping behavior, and psychological features. Eat Weight Disord 2017;22:61–8

Sleeping Less Increases the Risk of Obesity and Negatively Influences the Diet-Behavior Relationship Within Nutritional Psychology

Posted on June 29, 2022November 8, 2023 by CNP Super Admin

Adolescents often work strategically around their school schedules to allocate their time across studying, extracurriculars, and social activities to achieve a sense of freedom in an otherwise rigid structure. However, a compromise almost always has to be made in order to create more time, and regrettably, sleep is usually the one that becomes deprioritized (Owens et al., 2014).

A compromise is almost always made in order to create more time, and regrettably, sleep is usually the thing that becomes deprioritized.

This form of “bedtime procrastination” not only impacts the circadian rhythm that regulates the 24-hour sleep-wake cycle, but also the vital processes dependent on our body’s internal clock such as feeding behaviors. For example, lack of sleep has been associated with a higher risk of developing obesity due to dysregulated meal times, decreased self-inhibition, increased caloric intake, poorer nutritive quality of food consumed, increased sedentary time, and lowered metabolic expenditure (Duraccio et al., 2019; Krietsch et al., 2019).

“Bedtime procrastination” impacts the circadian rhythm that regulates the 24-hour sleep-wake cycle and the vital processes such as feeding behaviors.

Although studies have underscored the detrimental effects insufficient sleep has on the physical and mental health of adolescents, few have investigated the direct relationship between sleep and diet during adolescence.

To address this knowledge gap, Duraccio et al. (2021) led a crossover study on adolescent participants to understand how changes in sleep duration affected the amount, macronutrient content, and types of food they consumed. A crossover study allows observation of the same subjects across different conditions to evaluate how changes in the experiment’s design alter a specific outcome.

Duraccio et al. (2022) led a crossover study on adolescent participants to understand how changes in sleep duration affected the amount, macronutrient content, and types of food they consumed.

In this study, the authors wanted to investigate how different sleep durations influence both diet quality and the timing in which participants ate. To this end, the authors compared conditions of “Short Sleep” and “Healthy Sleep” (five nights for each condition, 6.5 and 9.5 hours of sleep opportunity, respectively) using wrist-worn actigraphy devices and self-reported daily sleep/wake times to track sleep length.

Figure 1. Association Between Sleep and Dietary Intake Behavior – Sleeping fewer hours per night correlated with increased consumption of carbohydrates and added sugars, and decreased intake of fruits and vegetables in adolescents, leading to an increased risk of developing obesity and related cardiometabolic diseases.

The authors report that adolescents have a greater tendency—particularly during the late evening—to consume more carbohydrates, added sugars, foods with a higher glycemic index, servings of sweet drinks, and ate fewer fruits/vegetables when they slept less (Duraccio et al., 2022). Compared to Healthy Sleep, the Short Sleep condition affected diet quality and timing of food consumption across participants. The study’s results are illuminating as they provide tangible evidence underscoring how less sleep correlates with higher risks of obesity and cardiometabolic diseases in adolescents. Moreover, the findings align and support similar work from other groups that advocate for pediatric interventions that promote better sleep to regulate healthy diet-brain signaling (Quist et al., 2016; Miller et al., 2018).

When adolescents slept less, they had a greater tendency to consume more carbohydrates, added sugars, servings of sweet drinks, and fewer fruits/vegetables.

What could be causing this association remains unclear and, accordingly, further research in this area is required. The current understanding is that this may be the body’s compensatory response to increase the consumption of high-energy foods (often unhealthy) to offset the loss of sleep, although such homeostatic drive inadvertently increases the negative risks of obesity and its comorbidities (Welsh et al., 2011, Duraccio et al., 2022). In other words, the authors discuss the correlation between the lack of sleep with less energy and the body’s natural response to eating more high-energy foods to offset this energy imbalance.

The authors discuss the correlation between the lack of sleep with less energy and the body’s natural response to eating more high-energy foods to offset the energy imbalance.

While this study’s results are subject to biases and inaccuracies as they rely on participant recall of what they ate, Duraccio et al. (2022) demonstrate how lack of sleep can alter feeding behaviors and lead to dietary changes that ultimately impact adolescent health. Be sure to see the Nutritional Psychology Research Library (NPRL) Diet and Sleep Research Category to learn more about the effect of diet on sleep.

References

Duraccio, K. M., Krietsch, K. N., Chardon, M. L., Van Dyk, T. R., & Beebe, D. W. (2019). Poor sleep and adolescent obesity risk: a narrative review of potential mechanisms. Adolescent health, medicine and therapeutics, 10, 117–130. https://doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S219594

Duraccio, K. M., Whitacre, C., Krietsch, K. N., Zhang, N., Summer, S., Price, M., Saelens, B. E., & Beebe, D. W. (2022). Losing sleep by staying up late leads adolescents to consume more carbohydrates and a higher glycemic load. Sleep, 45(3), zsab269. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab269

Krietsch, K. N., Chardon, M. L., Beebe, D. W., & Janicke, D. M. (2019). Sleep and weight-related factors in youth: A systematic review of recent studies. Sleep medicine reviews, 46, 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2019.04.010

Miller, M. A., Kruisbrink, M., Wallace, J., Ji, C., & Cappuccio, F. P. (2018). Sleep duration and incidence of obesity in infants, children, and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Sleep, 41(4), 10.1093/sleep/zsy018. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsy018

Owens, J., Adolescent Sleep Working Group, & Committee on Adolescence (2014). Insufficient sleep in adolescents and young adults: an update on causes and consequences. Pediatrics, 134(3), e921–e932. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-1696

Quist, J. S., Sjödin, A., Chaput, J. P., & Hjorth, M. F. (2016). Sleep and cardiometabolic risk in children and adolescents. Sleep medicine reviews, 29, 76–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2015.09.001

Welsh, J. A., Sharma, A., Cunningham, S. A., & Vos, M. B. (2011). Consumption of added sugars and indicators of cardiovascular disease risk among US adolescents. Circulation, 123(3), 249–257. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.972166

How did the COVID-19 Pandemic Influence the Diet Mental Health Relationship in 5,000 Households?

Posted on May 31, 2022November 9, 2023 by CNP Super Admin

The COVID-19 pandemic has been devastating across many aspects of life. From health concerns to financial insecurities, many have endured the challenging circumstances imposed by social distancing and public health measures aimed to contain contagious outbreaks.

Throughout the pandemic, changes in lifestyle and the loss of community from isolation have resulted in increased reports of mental health issues (Wilder-Smith & Freedman, 2020). The prevalence of anxiety and depression has motivated health professionals to consider new and different strategies to prevent and treat mental illnesses. A healthy diet is often recommended as a viable option to improve mental health.

The prevalence of anxiety and depression has motivated health professionals to consider different strategies to prevent and treat mental illnesses.

Since the pandemic has not only harmed food security but also the ability of individuals to maintain balanced diets, Coletro and colleagues were interested in identifying both how eating behaviors have changed during the pandemic, and whether these changes correlate with the higher incidence of anxiety and depression (Di Renzo et al., 2020; Huizar et al., 2021).

Focusing on the Brazilian urban population and through an epidemiological approach, Coletro et al. (2022) utilized household surveys to assess mental illness symptoms and food consumption during the COVID-19 pandemic. They employed the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item test to evaluate anxiety (Löwe et al., 2008) and the Patient Health Questionnaire for depression (Kroenke et al., 2001). To assess the quality of participants’ diet, a NOVA classification food questionnaire—a system developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations—was incorporated to quantify how frequently participants consumed fresh/minimally processed and ultra-processed foods (Monteiro et al., 2010; Meireles et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021).

In this study, fresh and minimally processed foods included beans, nuts, vegetables, red meat, chicken, fish, eggs, and fruits, whereas ultra-processed foods include soft drinks, packaged snacks, instant foods, processed meats like hamburgers, frozen products, bread, and sweets.

Figure 1. Eating more fresh/minimally processed foods is associated with a lower prevalence of depression and anxiety symptoms, while consumption of ultra-processed foods is associated with higher reports of depression and anxiety.

With data collected from over 5,000 households, the authors found that eating fresh/minimally processed foods above the weekly average frequency was associated with a lower prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms. In contrast, eating ultra-processed foods above the weekly average was associated with a higher prevalence of anxiety and depression (Figure 1).

Eating fresh/minimally processed foods above the weekly average frequency was associated with a lower prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms.

However, as this was a cross-sectional study where data were collected from participant self-responses at a specific time, it does not warrant causality between the consumption of processed foods and mental health symptoms. Nevertheless, the study’s results demonstrate that not only does nutrition relate to mental health but they also shed light on the importance of creating a balanced diet full of fresh and minimally processed foods. Nutrient deficiency increases the risk of inflammatory reactions in the brain and has been associated with the onset of mental illnesses (Grosso et al., 2014). Moreover, ultra-processed foods are poor in necessary micronutrients like vitamins and polyphenols, which are metabolized into essential, anti-inflammatory fatty acids that modulate critical mood neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine.

References

Coletro, H. N., Mendonça, R. D., Meireles, A. L., Machado-Coelho, G., & Menezes, M. C. (2022). Ultra-processed and fresh food consumption and symptoms of anxiety and depression during the COVID – 19 pandemic: COVID Inconfidentes. Clinical nutrition ESPEN, 47, 206–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2021.12.013

Di Renzo, L., Gualtieri, P., Pivari, F., Soldati, L., Attinà, A., Cinelli, G., Leggeri, C., Caparello, G., Barrea, L., Scerbo, F., Esposito, E., & De Lorenzo, A. (2020). Eating habits and lifestyle changes during COVID-19 lockdown: an Italian survey. Journal of translational medicine, 18(1), 229. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-020-02399-5

Grosso, G., Galvano, F., Marventano, S., Malaguarnera, M., Bucolo, C., Drago, F., & Caraci, F. (2014). Omega-3 fatty acids and depression: Scientific evidence and biological mechanisms. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity, 2014, 313570. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/313570

Huizar, M. I., Arena, R., & Laddu, D. R. (2021). The global food syndemic: The impact of food insecurity, Malnutrition and obesity on the healthspan amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Progress in cardiovascular diseases, 64, 105–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2020.07.002

Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (2001). The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of general internal medicine, 16(9), 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x

Löwe, B., Decker, O., Müller, S., Brähler, E., Schellberg, D., Herzog, W., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2008). Validation and standardization of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Screener (GAD-7) in the general population. Medical care, 46(3), 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e318160d093

Meireles, A. L., Lourenção, L. G., de Menezes Junior, L. A. A., Coletro, H. N., Justiniano, I. C. S., de Moura, S. S., … & Machado-Coelho, G. L. L. (2021). COVID-Inconfidentes-SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in two Brazilian urban areas during the pandemic first wave: study protocol and initial results.

Monteiro, C. A., Levy, R. B., Claro, R. M., Castro, I. R., & Cannon, G. (2010). A new classification of foods based on the extent and purpose of their processing. Cadernos de saude publica, 26(11), 2039–2049. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0102-311×2010001100005

Wang, L., Martínez Steele, E., Du, M., Pomeranz, J. L., O’Connor, L. E., Herrick, K. A., Luo, H., Zhang, X., Mozaffarian, D., & Zhang, F. F. (2021). Trends in Consumption of Ultraprocessed Foods Among US Youths Aged 2-19 Years, 1999-2018. JAMA, 326(6), 519–530. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.10238

Wilder-Smith, A., & Freedman, D. O. (2020). Isolation, quarantine, social distancing and community containment: pivotal role for old-style public health measures in the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak. Journal of travel medicine, 27(2), taaa020. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa020

How Much Do Nutritional Psychologists Really Make? And How Do I Become One?

Posted on August 17, 2020February 20, 2023 by CNP Super Admin

A Guide to the Field of Nutritional Psychology: Education, Salary, and More

To see a more updated version of this article, visit here. Note: This guide was written by the developer of the field of Nutritional Psychology, and reviewed by The Center for Nutritional Psychology (the founding organization of Nutritional Psychology), with the purpose of providing individuals with accurate information reflecting the state of the field. Nutritional Psychology was first defined in 2005, taught in university courses in 2008, and The Center for Nutritional Psychology was founded later in 2015 to foster NP’s growth and set the foundation for the field. Due to the source of the information provided in this article, it is considered an accurate reflection of the history, development, and direction of the field of Nutritional Psychology.

What is Nutritional Psychology?

NP is the area of study examining how dietary intake patterns affect mood, behavior, and mental health. Nutritional Psychology examines the psychological, behavioral, cognitive, perceptual, interoceptive (sensory), and psychosocial changes we experience in relation to our dietary intake patterns.

Each Nutritional Psychology element is defined here in more detail:

Diet and Psychological element: The relationship between our dietary-nutrient intake patterns and our psychological moods, emotions and affect (e.g., resilience, flourishing, creativity, negativity).

Diet and Behavioral element: The behaviors, reactions, and choices in which we engage that result from thoughts and emotions influenced by our dietary intake and food environment (e.g., increased reactive behavior or changed dietary behavior patterns).

Diet and Perceptual element: Our interpretation of food-related information stemming from our society, familial, and cultural dietary environment (what foods we are exposed to and how that influences our choices).

Diet and Interoceptive element: The internal physiological sensations we experience in response to our dietary intake patterns (discomfort, pain, energy, fatigue, craving, and wanting).

Diet and Cognitive element: The relationship between dietary-nutrient intake and our cognitive functions and capacity, including memory, attention, learning, and appetite control.

Diet and Psychosocial element: Examining the role that family, culture, community, society, and socioeconomic status play in relationship to our dietary-nutrient intake patterns.

All mental health professionals can benefit from understanding the elements of Nutritional Psychology, and when taken together, these elements form conceptualization in the Diet Mental Health Relationship.

How can I become a “Nutritional Psychologist”?

The formal title of “Nutritional Psychologist” does not yet exist. The first academic training in Nutritional Psychology resided in the John F. Kennedy University in the Continuing Education department from 2008 through 2020. This program provided academic training to hundreds of mental health professionals, nutritionists and dietitians, students, nurses, and counselors in the field of Nutritional Psychology. Those completing the program are trained in providing psycho-educational tools that assist clients in understanding of the diet-mental health relationship (DMDHR). The next-generation curriculum in NP is in development and will be available through The Center for Nutritional Psychology in 2021.

What is the scope of practice for those trained in Nutritional Psychology?

The intended scope of practice for Nutritional Psychology is dependent on the accompanying certification or license of the practitioner (Nutritionist, LCSW, LPCC, MD, Licensed Psychologist, etc.). It is a subset of information and tools designed to deepen the awareness and effectiveness through a better understanding of the DMHR.

Nutritional Psychology provides education, rather than intervention, treatment, or diagnosis. Training and certification in Nutritional Psychology do not provide professionals with the ability to give dietary advice or intervention if they do not already have a license to do so. If one does not have a state-sanctioned license, then the person must work in conjunction with professionals whose scope of practice includes providing nutritional intervention to affect health outcomes.

Those who received formal education and training in Nutritional Psychology, and who can provide education within their scope of practice, may provide educational information on how diet affects mental health, and use NP psycho-educational ‘tools’ to increase awareness of the effects of diet on psychological, cognitive, behavioral, perceptual, interoceptive and psychosocial functioning.

How much do Nutritional Psychologists make?

No salary data for jobs in Nutritional Psychology currently exists. Rather, the psycho-educational tools within Nutritional Psychology serve as an adjunct to previously established mental healthcare methods. Nutritional Psychology provides an additional, and increasingly important tool for professionals to incorporate that helps their clients be better able to achieve their goals, which in turn, can increase the demand for their services, which can (as does any specialty) result in increased services offerings and generated revenue.

Where can I get a degree in Nutritional Psychology?

There is currently no degree program leading to an undergraduate or graduate degree in Nutritional Psychology. The first university-based curriculum in Nutritional Psychology began at John F. Kennedy University from 2008-2020 and was accredited for Continuing Education credits by the American Psychological Association (APA), The California Board of Behavioral Sciences (BBS), and the California Board of Registered Nursing (BRN). The Center for Nutritional Psychology is working to develop a university-level curriculum in Nutritional Psychology that will be available in 2021-2022.

Where can I find education in the field of Nutritional Psychology?

The Center for Nutritional Psychology (CNP) is working to develop the field of Nutritional Psychology by consolidating research, developing an educational curriculum that informs learners of the appropriate methods, concepts, and tools, publishing the first textbook in Nutritional Psychology, setting practice guidelines and standards for certification and licensure in Nutritional Psychology.

Isn’t there currently a Certificate in Nutritional Psychology available for mental health professionals?

Yes, however, the current certificate program in Nutritional Psychology at JFKU is being ‘taught out’, which means the authors of the program have decided to phase it out although it currently has students enrolled. These students will be allowed to complete the program, which remains accredited until they have completed the program. No new students can be enrolled in the JFKU Certificate in NP. CNP is developing a new curriculum to replace this program, which will be available through CNP sometime in early 2021.

Can I obtain a license in Nutritional Psychology?

There is currently no licensing or certifying organization that provides formal credentialing leading to the title of “Nutritional Psychologist”. The John F. Kennedy Certificate in Nutritional Psychology provided formalized education in Nutritional Psychology along with the scope of practice guidelines, but this program is currently being replaced by the next-generation curriculum in Nutritional Psychology available through The Center for Nutritional Psychology (CNP) in 2021-2022.

Aren’t all Mental Health Professionals trained in Nutritional Psychology?

Psychologists and mental health professionals already address the psychological, cognitive, psychosocial, and behavioral knowledge that contributes to positive mental health, but the current model is not considering the Diet-Mental Health Relationship (DMHR) as a contributor to mental health issues.

Conversely, dietitians and nutritionists already address the dietary knowledge that contributes to positive dietary intake and practices. But formal training in the DMHR is not included for those in these fields.

The field of Nutritional Psychology is developing in response to the growing need to equip mental health professionals and nutritionists alike with knowledge of how dietary patterns interact with psychological, cognitive, behavioral, perceptual (interoceptive), and psychosocial functioning to impact both physical and mental health.

Does a professional with Nutritional Psychology skills provide dietary or mental health treatment and/or intervention?

Nutritional Psychology training does not qualify professionals to write nutrition-focused treatment plans or implement specific nutritional interventions. Nutritional Psychology provides professionals with psycho-educational tools and information designed to increase client awareness of how dietary factors can influence their mental health outcomes.

Who should get involved in Nutritional Psychology?

Students in high school and college, licensed professionals, and anyone interested in understanding more about the Diet Mental Health Relationship (DMHR). Typical backgrounds of interested people include psychology, counseling, marriage and family therapy, dietetics, health coaching, nutrition, nursing, and other health-related professions.

Does Nutritional Psychology give me the ability to diagnose or treat mental health problems?

No. Nutritional Psychology does not provide intervention or diagnosis. Rather, it provides psycho-educational tools that engage individuals in understanding the relationship between their dietary intake patterns and their mood, behavior, and mental health.

Is there a difference between the fields of Nutritional Psychiatry and Nutritional Psychology?

While the research informing these two fields at times overlap, the fields of Nutritional Psychology and Nutritional Psychiatry are distinct.

The innovative and emerging field of Nutritional Psychiatry is generally concerned with researching the connection between diet and mental health, including possible clinical intervention (diagnosis and treatment) in patients who suffer from psychiatric disorders including depression and anxiety. This field has been instrumental in leading the way forward in the Diet-Mental Health Relationship.

Nutritional Psychology is focused on the development of methodology, is applied, and includes research informing the following areas:

Diet and…

Psychological functioning
Mood (affect)
Behavior
Cognition
Interoception/sensory
Perception
Performance
Psychosocial
Brain Function

Any aspect of the relationship between daily dietary intake patterns and their effects on the “Diet Mental Health Relationship” (DMHR) form the basis of Nutritional Psychology and the exploration of the ways in which diet is a positive or negative contributor to psychological functioning.

Is Nutritional Psychology different from Health Psychology?

Nutritional Psychology is distinct from Health Psychology. Nutritional Psychology examines the psychological, behavioral, cognitive, perceptual, interoceptive, and psychosocial factors that occur in relationship to human dietary intake patterns. NP is aligned with principles of integrative health, and the newly emerging transformational approach to health and wellbeing is referred to as ‘Whole Health’. Whole health empowers and equips people to take charge of their physical, mental, and spiritual well-being, and live their lives to the fullest.

Health psychology examines how biological, social, and psychological factors influence health and illness. Health psychologists use psychological science to promote health, prevent illness and improve health care systems. These fields have developed independently from each other though no doubt can benefit from one another.

Is there evidence to support the field of Nutritional Psychology?

There is a growing body of research demonstrating the link between dietary intake and the psychological, behavioral, cognitive, perceptual, interoceptive, and psychosocial aspects of mental health. The Center for Nutritional Psychology (CNP) consolidates this research into three different research libraries:

For curated libraries containing research on the diet-mental health relationship in the adult population, visit the CNP Nutritional Psychology Research Library.
For adolescent and child diet-mental health studies visit the CNP Parent Resource Library.
For studies on the diet-mental health relationship in the neurodevelopmental community, visit the CNP Neurodevelopmental Resource Library).

Nutritional Psychology uses evidence-based research to inform and guide the development of the field, and research substantiates the process of providing education/psycho-education designed to help people understand and implement dietary changes. The specific NP tools, methods, and concepts developed thus far have not yet been validated through research.

What are the Educational Requirements for a Career in Nutritional Psychology?

There are currently no educational requirements for a career in NP because there is no official title, license, or degree associated with this field. In order to make good use of the information and tools of NP, we recommend pursuing:

– A graduate-level degree in psychology, counseling, nutrition, or health science, or

– A four-year degree program consisting of electives, core study courses relating to nutrition, psychology, counseling, social work, or mental health;

– Formal education in Nutritional Psychology (available through CNP in 2021-2022).

The following areas of disciplines would help:

Psychology

Counseling

Health Studies

Health Coaching

Nutrition

Nutrition Education or consulting

Dietetics

Social Work

School counselor

Wellness coaching

Substance abuse Counselor

Can Nutritional Psychology be used to cure mental disorders?

Nutritional Psychology is designed to be complimentary and an addition to standard mental health interventions and treatments. For individuals who possess an appropriate license to diagnose and treat mental disorders, NP can provide tools to assist in the treatment. This information and tools from NP can provide a piece of the puzzle for supporting mental health, but is never to be used as a substitute for psychiatric, therapeutic, or medical interventions.

What recommendations do you have regarding incorporating Nutritional Psychology into one’s practice?

Professionals incorporating Nutritional Psychology into their practice must have:

Formal training in NP (available through CNP in 2021), which includes an understanding of the relationship between dietary and nutrient intake on all aspects of psychological, behavioral, cognitive, perceptual, interoceptive, and psychosocial functioning;
Advanced knowledge commonly found in a Master’s degree education or higher in psychology, social science, or the health science that includes advanced courses in psychology, along with electives in anatomy and physiology;
Formal education in nutrition in the form of certification or license from a credentialed program;
Demonstrated competency in how NP education can be incorporated into their work in a manner that is consistent with their profession’s scope of practice. They must also demonstrate awareness of competencies that extend beyond their profession’s scope of practice and determine when a referral for a psychological or nutritional diagnosis, intervention, or treatment is necessary;

The courses will be suitable for nutritionists and dieticians who seek additional training in mental health from accredited institutions, as well as psychology-minded practitioners requiring coaching on implementing nutritional techniques.

What Does the Future Hold for Nutritional Psychology?

All areas of specialty that can benefit from Nutritional Psychology training are experiencing projected rates of employment growth faster than average, including jobs as nutritionists and dietitians, psychologists:

For nutritionists and dietitians, The BLS (Bureau of Labor Statistics) expects the field to grow by 11% by 2028. The BLS attributes this growth to “the role of food in preventing and treating diseases, such as diabetes”. This is also undoubtedly to address the most recent NHANES findings on obesity in the U.S. adult population (42.4%) (NHANES is a cross-sectional survey designed to monitor the health and nutritional status of the civilian non-institutionalized U.S. population). Dietitians and nutritionists will be needed to provide care for patients in improving their overall health.

Additionally, the Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that those close to retirement age are demanding more nutritional services. Assisted living facilities, hospitals, nursing homes, and private clinics are expected to add more positions in this field. This need is consistent with research connecting diet with age-related brain disorders.

The employment of psychologists is projected to grow 14 percent from 2018 to 2028, much faster than the average for all occupations. Job prospects should be best for those who have a doctoral degree in an applied specialty.

Employment of marriage and family therapists is projected to grow 22 percent from 2018 to 2028, much faster than the average for all occupations. Growth is expected due to the increasing use of teams for treatment, in which these therapists work with other counselors to address patients’ needs.

Employment of substance abuse, behavioral disorder, and mental health counselors is projected to grow 22 percent from 2018 to 2028, much faster than the average for all occupations. Employment growth is expected as people continue to seek addiction and mental health counseling.

A recent study published in The Lancet estimates that “one in five deaths globally — equivalent to 11 million deaths — are associated with poor diet, and that diet contributes to a range of chronic diseases in people around the world”. And that “the urgent need for coordinated global efforts to improve the quality of human diet” is needed, and that “given the complexity of dietary behaviors and the wide range of influences on diet, improving diet requires the active collaboration of a variety of actors throughout the food system, along with policies targeting multiple sectors of the food system (Lancet 2019).”

Future Education and Training Benefits in Nutritional Psychology

Collectively, these projected job statistics along with the rise in chronic diet-related and mental-health-related conditions, indicate the added knowledge professionals gain from education and training in Nutritional Psychology could quickly highlight their job skills in an increasingly competitive field, and may fast-track career progression.

While both the nutrition and mental health fields have existed independently for many years, nutrition and mental health are only recently beginning to be combined. The demand for nutritional psychology services is likely to increase as individuals become more aware of and interested in the connection between diet and mental health. This is particularly as research validates the link between diet and mental health.

Research is demonstrating that diet is playing an increasingly important role in the mental health of individuals and societies around the globe. The development of the field of Nutritional Psychology provides mental health and nutrition professionals with a much-needed structure through which to address mental health issues.

Visit The Center for Nutritional Psychology (CNP) to keep current with what’s happening in the field of Nutritional Psychology.

References:

GBD 2017 Diet Collaborators. Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. The Lancet, April 3, 2019; DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30041-8

Nutritional Psychology Programs and Education

Posted on August 20, 2020August 23, 2023 by CNP Super Admin

There is a crucial need to deliver better education to the public and clinicians about the role of diets and nutrients in sustaining mental health (Huang 2019).

Nutritional Psychology (NP) is the area of study that examines the relationship between our dietary intake patterns and our mood, behavior, and mental health. This examination includes the psychological, behavioral, cognitive, perceptual/sensory, interoceptive and psychosocial elements of psychological functioning and mental health related to dietary and nutrient intake.

1. NP Elements Diagram

This comprehensive view of the Diet-Mental Health Relationship allows us to develop a deeper understanding of how these patterns influence our mood, behavior, and mental health.

2. Nutritional Psychology Diet Mental Health Relationship (DMHR)

Education in Nutritional Psychology

NP education provides professionals with the conceptualization, tools and skills necessary to address DMHR-related issues in client care. These skills are aimed at creating positive changes for individuals in all NP-related aspects of psychological functioning and mental health.

The first four-year university-based Educational Curriculum in Nutritional Psychology resided from 2008-2020* at John F. Kennedy University. The courses and Certificate program were designed to assist mental health professionals, nurses, counselors, and marriage and family therapists, with conceptualization in the field of Nutritional Psychology, along with an introduction to some of the applied psycho-educational tools within NP. A 3-unit scope of practice course was included in the certificate to provide guidance on how to incorporate NP education into practice within the scope of practice.

The JFKU Certificate in Nutritional Psychology is currently being taught out, and CNP is developing the next-generation curriculum in Nutritional Psychology available through CNP beginning in 2021-2022.

The Center for Nutritional Psychology – Developing the field of Nutritional Psychology from a scientific perspective

The organization fostering the development of the field of Nutritional Psychology is called The Center for Nutritional Psychology (CNP). CNP was founded in 2013 to support the development of the field of Nutritional Psychology, and to serve as an online resource for those seeking to understand the role that diet plays in mood, behavior, and mental health.

The Center’s mission is to provide mental health professionals, dietitians, health coaches, physicians, researchers, educators, students, parents, and interested individuals with access to research, information, and skills in the field of Nutritional Psychology. CNP believes that mental health professionals benefit from having access to formal training in Nutritional Psychology, and that NP should be considered a core concept within the field of mental health.

NP Curriculum for Undergraduate University Students

This mini-curriculum is for university professors and college instructors who wish to introduce NP as a special mini-unit providing students with a modularized one or two (50-minute class session) introduction to Nutritional Psychology. Presentation materials, background research, methodology, discussion points, experiential exercise, and quiz materials are included.

NP Curriculum for Mental Health Professionals

This course introduces mental health professionals to the field of Nutritional Psychology. Research highlights from areas encompassing the field are presented, along with concepts, and introductory psycho-educational tools for developing both practitioner and client awareness in the DMHR. Scope of Practice instruction is provided.

NP Curriculum for Pediatric Health Professionals

This course introduces pediatric and child mental healthcare professionals to a set of perceptual educational tools aimed at cuing a child’s awareness of the Diet-Mental Health Relationship during age-appropriate developmental periods. Childhood and adolescence are an important time for establishing healthy eating patterns into adulthood (Francis et. al 2019). In addition to a lack of education in the Diet-Mental Health Relationship for children or adolescents in the current mental health or healthcare system, ample evidence linking dietary intake (nutrients, quality and pattern) with child and adolescent mental health is available.

NP Animated Curriculum for Children

This online animated curriculum is designed to include cutting edge research embedded within an online series of animated videos for elementary-school age kids. The approach of “eat your vegetables” isn’t working. NP animated curriculum for kids is designed to be cool and engaging while incorporating cutting edge research in the Diet-Mental Health Relationship.

NP Culinary Cooking Skills for Children

Research is demonstrating the importance of teaching children and adolescents cooking skills. Better cooking skills lead to better self-efficacy, behavioral change, and healthier outcomes (see the cooking studies in the CNP Parent Resource Library). These courses provide basic cooking skills for children, and teach them how these skills can be used to improve the way they feel.

CNP believes that all mental health professionals can benefit from understanding the basic principles of Nutritional Psychology. Providing education in NP curriculum will help accomplish this goal.

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*Accredited by the American Psychological Association (APA), The California Board of Behavioral Sciences (BBS), and the California Board of Registered Nursing (BRN)

References

Huang, Q., Liu, H., Suzuki, K., Ma, S., Liu, C., Linking What We Eat to Our Mood: A Review of Diet, Dietary Antioxidants, and Depression. Antioxidants 2019, 8(9), 376.

Nutritional Psychology

https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/nutritional-psychology/

Diet and psychological:

Diet, Mood & Well-Being

Diet and behavioral:

Diet and Behavior

Diet and cognitive:

Diet and Cognition

Diet and perceptual/sensory

Diet and Gastrointestinal Sensitivities

Diet and interoceptive:

Diet and Gastrointestinal Sensitivities

Diet and psychosocial:

Diet and Psychosocial

Diet-Mental Heath Relationship (DMHR).

https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/nutritional-psychology/

Educational Curriculum

Certificate – Nutritional Psychology

Introduction to Nutritional Psychology

https://www.jfku.edu/course/nutritional-psychology/introduction-to-nutritional-psychology/

Nutritional Psychology Tools: Assessment and Macronutrient Remediation

https://www.jfku.edu/course/nutritional-psychology/nutritional-psychology-tools-assessment-and-macronutrient-remediation/

Integrating Nutritional Psychology into Clinical Practice

https://www.jfku.edu/course/nutritional-psychology/integrating-nutritional-psychology-into-clinical-practice/

Effects of Nutrition on Clinical Disorders

https://www.jfku.edu/course/nutritional-psychology/effects-of-nutrition-on-clinical-disorders/

Sugar and Emotion

https://www.jfku.edu/course/nutritional-psychology/sugar-and-emotion/

The Stress-Mood Axis

https://www.jfku.edu/course/nutritional-psychology/the-stress-mood-axis/

The Gut-Brain Axis

https://www.jfku.edu/course/nutritional-psychology/the-gut-brain-axis/

Next-generation Curriculum in Nutritional Psychology

https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/educations/

The Center for Nutritional Psychology

https://www.nutritional-psychology.org

Francis HM, Stevenson RJ, Chambers JR, Gupta D, Newey B, Lim CK (2019) A brief diet intervention can reduce symptoms of depression in young adults – A randomised controlled trial. PLoS ONE 14(10): e0222768.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222768

Evidence

RESEARCH LIBRARY