Diet and Behavior

The goal of this study was to evaluate the impact of different time-of-day eating patterns on incidence of lifetime mood disorders. From 2004 to 2006, the study assessed 1,304 subjects on their food and drink intake over 24 hours. Their lifetime mood disorder prevalence was measured at follow-up (5 years later) using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Three eating habits were identified: grazing (intake spread across the day); traditional (highest intakes as breakfast, lunch and dinner); and late (either skipped or delayed breakfast with greater consumption in the evening). Compared to the adults in the respective pattern at baseline and follow-up, a higher prevalence of mood disorder was seen in the highest third of the “late” pattern (PR=2.04), and a lower incidence observed in the highest third of those eating in the “traditional” pattern (PR=0.31). It was found that the adults in this cohort population who experienced a mood disorder during the follow-up had a 1.07 higher relative risk of being in a higher “late” pattern score category than those who did not experience a mood disorder. This suggests that having an eating pattern that involves skipping or delaying breakfast may increase one's risk of developing mood disorders. [NPID: behavior, eating patterns, grazing, skipped breakfast, breakfast]

This 2019 cross-sectional study assessed the relationship between breakfast habits and daily food consumption with well-being and sleep quality in a group of 66 healthy young adults. Lifestyle questionnaires and dietary recalls helped identify daily consumption and eating patterns in the study group, while 7-day actigraphy and sleep diaries tracked sleep quality. Increased breakfast frequency over the week showed significant improvements in perceived waking alertness, and was correlated with lower calorie and fat intake across a day. There was also a positive association found between breakfast frequency with perceived sleep quality and perceived waking mood, although no association was discovered with measured sleep duration, latency, and efficiency. When examining the breakfast groups (determined by whether breakfast is consumed 7 days/week or skipped at least once a week), the more consistently breakfast-eating group reported higher perceived sleep quality, mood, and alertness upon waking compared to those who skipped breakfast (p<0.05). Breakfast consumers took in less energy and carbohydrates per day than those breakfast skippers, although variation between the groups in the sleep outcomes was not reported. Overall, Gwin et al. (2019) suggest that breakfast consumption is associated with mood, sleep health, and eating habits in healthy young adults, although further studies examining the causal role of breakfast over a longer time period should be conducted. [NPID: behavior, breakfast, well-being, sleep quality, sleep, alertness, sleep health]

In this review, Fiese (2018) discusses food-related time allocation in several forms, and its relationship with our eating habits. Drawing from previous studies, Fiese states that the amount of time dedicated to cooking and dining can be associated with cardiovascular risk and BMI, and therefore focuses on alternate influences on diet and health, such as perception of time intensity and direct observation of allocation during meals. Those who feel time pressure or strain may be less likely to get involved in healthy food related activities and could be at a higher risk for health outcomes. Fiese recommends a socio-ecological approach to the study of time allocation and dietary habits in the United States, and promotes the exploration of direct observation of time use. [NPID: behavior, breakfast, time allocation, timing, cardiovascular risk, BMI, time pressure, food timing]

This study investigated whether a messy, chaotic kitchen influences snacking behavior, and explores the possibility that different mindsets can lead to either more or less snacking in female students. One hundred and one undergraduate students experienced one of two conditions in this experiment: 1) a standard kitchen, or 2) a chaotic kitchen. The participant’s mindsets were categorized by asking them to recall a time when they felt particularly in control or particularly out-of-control. They were then handed cookies, crackers, and carrots, and their responses were recorded for analysis. The study found that those with an out-of-control mindset and those placed in the chaotic kitchen consumed more cookies than the in-control mindset subgroup, while the chaotic environment had no impact on carrots or crackers consumption. The untidiness and chaos in the kitchen could make one susceptible to making unhealthy dietary decisions, but the individual's mindset can trigger or buffer against this vulnerability. [NPID: behavior, messy, dirty, mindset, snacking, messy kitchen, cleanliness, order, chaos, clutter]

This 2020 study aimed to analyze the effects of exposing individuals to stress and cues (food and neutral) on their food consumption, and determine if their responses differed by weight status. The 138 participants were exposed to the cues on 3 separate days (using an individualized script-driven imagery task), before being allowed to eat as many snacks (high and low calorie) as they desired after each cue exposure. While food cues were found to elicit significantly greater hunger than neutral and stress stimuli, no difference in cue-induced hunger between weight statuses were observed. Participants also consumed similar numbers in calories after each cue exposure, although a significantly greater proportion (average 81%) came from high-calorie foods in the obese subjects, compared to 63.5% in those in the normal weight category. Weight status did not influence energy contribution from high-calorie foods following the neutral cue, but after the stress cue in particular, 81.4% of what the obese individuals ate were high-calorie snacks, whereas this percentage was 70.2% for those with normal weight. It appears that food and stress cues induced obese participants to consume more high-calorie snack foods than normal weight individuals. [NPID: behavior, stress, food cues, snacks, snacking, obese, obesity]

Hess et al. (2016) begin by mentioning the benefits of defining a snack and distinguishing between meals and snacks, since the labeling of a food as one or the other may affect an individual’s food choice and possibly their satiety after consumption. The purpose of this review was to examine the definition of extra eating events, to understand the rationale for eating at these times, and to discover the commonly decided food choices, in order to suggest dietary interventions for improving these habits. In part 1, the writers discuss how snacking is defined, and how an individual’s motivation to snack and snack choices can be influenced. In part II, they present popular snack choices, overall snacking frequencies, and the demographics (across several countries) of those who snack frequently. The authors also inspect snacking’s relationship with cardiometabolic health markers. This review is concluded by an encouragement to promote nutritious snacks with the goal of preventing nutrient deficiencies. [NPID: behavior, snacks, snacking, meal times, timing, satiety, eating times, nutrient deficiencies]

Nas et al. (2017) tested the hypothesis that the timing of skipping meals may affect risk of obesity and type II diabetes by modulating the circadian regulation of energy balance, glucose metabolism, and postprandial inflammatory responses. In this randomized controlled crossover trial, the 17 subjects underwent the following dietary intervention for 3 days: they began with a breakfast skipping day (BSD), received the conventional 3 meals the following day (control), and ended on a dinner skipping day (DSD). Energy and macronutrient balance was measured in a respiration chamber, while the participants’ blood was monitored for glycaemia and insulin section over 24 hours, as well as inflammatory responses in leukocytes, glucose, and insulin levels after food intake. Energy expenditure over the previous 24 hours was reported to be higher in both skipping days when compared with the 3-meal control group, while fat oxidation was greater only in the group who skipped breakfast. No variation was found in spontaneous physical activity, 24-hour glycemia, nor 24-hour insulin secretion between the 3 intervention days. The differences observed between BSD and DSD were increases in postprandial homeostasis model assessment index (+54%), postprandial blood glucose (+46%) and inflammatory potential of peripheral blood cells post-lunch. This trial demonstrated greater energy expenditure in those who skipped meals, and the connection between skipping breakfast with greater fat oxidation and postprandial insulin levels, suggesting that chronic breakfast skipping could irregulate glucose concentrations and lead to inflammation. [NPID: behavior, skipped meals, obesity, diabetes, circadian, glucose metabolism, inflammation, breakfast, fat oxidation]

Since consumer acceptance is crucial for the success of personalised nutrition services aimed at preventing diseases, Reinders et al. (2020) tried to relate an individual’s ambivalent feelings and contextual factors to their willingness to use personalized dietary services. The researchers obtained data from 797 participants in the Netherlands through an online survey, and tested and compared different models. The risk-benefit calculus model showed a positive correlation between weighing benefits and privacy risks with intention to use personalized nutrition advice, while ambivalent feelings were linked with weaker intentions. This suggests greater uptake of personalized services when perceived benefits outweigh risks. Additionally, more ambivalent feelings were experienced when eating context was perceived as a barrier to use the services of personalized nutrition. These findings imply that personalized nutrition services may need to address affective concerns and consider an individual’s eating context. [NPID: behavior, consumer acceptance, personalized nutrition, disease prevention, individualized nutrition]

In this 2020, study, researchers conducted a project in an urban environment particularly known for unhealthy snacking, and attempted to encourage people to consume healthier snacks by making these healthy alternatives more accessible. In stages, Schlinkert et al. (2020) identified a hotspot location for unhealthy snacking (by tracking people’s snacking locations and conducting surveys), developed and branded an attractive snack for the consumers that was accepted as both healthy and tasty, and designed the small truck where they would be sold. While selling the snacks from the truck at the unhealthy snacking hotspot, people were asked for their opinions on the snack and its branding. This revealed that the consumers appreciated the snack, the truck and the branding, although the actual sales figures were very low. The common snacking and purchasing habits of the consumers may explain the low sales; based on the data gathered from this project, easing people’s access to healthy snacks may not be sufficient to encourage consumers to choose healthier snack foods. It was proposed that perhaps selling the healthy snacks directly beside popular snack purchase locations may increase attention and recognition. [NPID: behavior, snacking, healthy snacking]

Bracale et al. (2020) conducted a 14-question survey based on the updated Mediterranean diet pyramid to determine the respondents’ eating behaviors and compliance to the Mediterranean-like dietary pattern since this habit may help prevent certain chronic diseases. While this cross-sectional study targeted subjects over the age of 19, the vast majority of participants (75.6%) were female, 20.7% were in the younger category, and 33.1% had a university degree. Sedentary lifestyle was prevalent in 37.8% of the sample population, including in 29.6% of those aged 20-29 years. Moreover, females and older people especially did not adhere to recommendations included in the Mediterranean diet pyramid. One of the highlights was the discrepancy identified between the responders' perceived and actual behaviour toward their regular consumption of fruits and vegetables. The results emphasize the lack of adherence to the Mediterranean diet recommendations shown by Italian adults. [NPID: behavior, mediterranean diet, chronic disease]

Timlin et al. (2020) conducted a systematic review to find and qualitatively evaluate trials that implement whole dietary patterns using a Social Cognition Model. The purpose was to thoroughly assess the effectiveness and psychological theory of dietary interventions that encouraged a whole eating pattern. The 9 studies that met the inclusion criteria were then analyzed to find that interventions improved at least one food group in studies reporting on individual food group scores. Overall, based on the Theory Coding Scheme (research tool that determines the extent to which theory was applied to design interventions), it was suggested that studies were not vigorously applying theory to intervention design. We should investigate further to determine the most important behaviour change theory and techniques in dietary interventions. [NPID: behavior, dietary patterns, social cognitive, whole eating pattern, whole foods, dietary intervention]

In this 2014 study, regular chocolate consumers were deprived of chocolate for one week and were provided with pictures of chocolate and high-calorie non-chocolate containing foods before and after this week of abstinence. Blechert et al. (2014), who planned to analyze the impact of food restriction, saw more liking, wanting, and consumption of chocolates, as well as greater feelings of frustration among participants during the intervals between the trials. Considering the findings from the eyeblink startle responses as well, these results indicate that hedonic deprivation (restriction of intake of certain foods without energy deficit) has profound effects on experiential, behavioral and attentional/appetitive response systems. The author also discusses what these findings mean for dieting research and practice, and specifically for eating and weight disorders. [NPID: behavior, chocolate, food restriction, restriction, hedonic deprivation, appetite, eating disorders, weight disorders]

This 2011 review explains the phenomenon that is entrainment by food and specifically by palatable snacks. Escobar et al. (2011) say the signals transmitted by the biological clock, that normally adjusts to the daily light/dark (LD) alternation, can be influenced and overridden by food. There usually exists a correct coordination between the light/dark transition and the food elicited time signals with the circadian system, but this synchronisation within the body becomes disturbed if food is consumed during the regular resting/sleep phase. This review suggests that scheduled feeding may lead to food addiction and that altered eating schedules can alter dietary behavior and result in obesity and abnormal metabolic responses. [NPID: behavior, snacks, palatable food, palatable snacks, snacking, circadian rhythm, metabolism, obesity, scheduled eating, scheduled feeding]

This 2015 meta-analysis was designed to measure the impact of induced positive and negative mood on the food consumption of healthy subjects as well as those with eating and weight disorders. Two meta-analyses were conducted on the 33 studies selected (totalling 2491 participants) to compare negative/positive mood with neutral mood. Poor mood was significantly associated with more food intake particularly in restrained and binge eaters, while positive mood was also related with increased consumption in calories across groups. The findings suggest there could be a causal link between negative mood and more food intake which requires further exploration. [NPID: behavior, mood, restrained eating, restriction, binge eating, negative mood]

Happy eating: The Single Target Implicit Association Test predicts overeating after positive emotions

In this 2016 study, 190 undergraduate women were randomly assigned to either an anger or neutral mood condition, before completing the Food Stroop task (assesses attentional bias), and then given the chance to eat mandarin oranges and/or chocolate candy while the experimenter was not present in the room. The plan was to examine the effect of attentional bias and negative affect on food consumption. The results showed that women high in negative urgency (NU) who experienced emotional arousal were more likely to consume candy and more candy than any other woman participant. Attentional bias was not related to food intake, and was unaffected by emotional arousal or emotional valence (interest/attractiveness). The influence that negative mood has on consumption of palatable foods appears to involve emotional arousal rather than emotional valence, and may be primarily seen in women high in negative urgency. [NPID: mood, attention, attentional bias, affect, negative affect, negative urgency, emotional arousal]

This 2017 review examined the prevalence of grazing (unstructured, repetitive eating of food in small amounts) in adults with eating disorders and/or obesity in both clinical and community settings. Although grazing has been linked with negative results following bariatric surgery, little is known about about this dietary pattern in eating disorders and in obese individuals who have not undergone surgery. Heriseanu et al. (2017) here found 38 criteria-meeting studies through systematically searching online databases, before conducting a meta-analysis on 32 studies with data on prevalence. The mean pooled prevalence of grazing was found to be 33.2% in obesity before weight loss treatment, 28.16% in obesity at follow-up, and 23.32% in the community. Grazing was also reported in 58.25% of bulimia nervosa cases, 67.77% of people with binge eating disorders, and 34.31% of anorexia nervosa sufferers. It was therefore deduced that grazing is substantially common in obesity and in eating disorders. This review presents inconsistent evidence linking grazing with poorer weight loss treatment outcomes in obesity, lower mood, worsening of eating disorders, and decreased mental health-related quality of life. [NPID: mood, graving, eating disorders, obesity, bariatric surgery, bulimia, binge eating, anorexia, quality of life]

Relating goal-directed behaviour to grazing in persons with obesity with and without eating disorder features

In this 2018 meta-analysis, Evers et al. (2018) planned to analyze the impact of emotions on eating in both healthy individuals and patients with eating disorders. The researchers gathered 56 experimental studies on the causal effect of emotions on eating behavior, and performed separate meta-analyses for negative and positive emotions. Also investigated was the degree to which restrained/emotional eating and being overweight/obese moderated the overall impact of emotions on dietary behaviors. The results demonstrated that negative emotions did not affect eating in overweight/obese participants, those with eating disorders and self-assessed emotional eaters, but increased food intake among restrained eaters. Positive emotions on the other hand, saw greater dietary consumption across all groups. Heterogeneity of these studies was found to be high, although these findings appear to indicate restrained eaters’ higher vulnerability to emotion-induced eating. [NPID: mood, emotions, eating disorders, emotional eating, restrained eating, obesity, restriction]

This 2020 study explored emotional overeating by exposing participants to a personalized emotion induction while showing images of palatable foods, and assessing the effect of emotion condition (negative, neutral) and individual differences (self-reported trait emotional and restrained eating) on outcome variables such as facial expression, brain reactivity, valence (attractiveness) and desire to eat. The results revealed increased attractiveness and appetitive reactions to palatable foods in individuals with higher emotional eating scores in the negative condition, but the opposite effect in those with lower emotional eating scores. A similar pattern was observed for desire to eat ratings among participants who showed greater response to the emotion-inducing technique, indicating a dose-response interaction. Furthermore, increased brain activation was apparent among restrained eaters in the negative condition when viewing images of foods compared to objects. The appetitive reactions seen in emotional eaters backed up emotion regulation theories, while the brain activity towards food compared to objects among restrained eaters support cognitive theories. The authors believe further investigation is necessary, particularly on eating disorders with emotion regulation difficulties. [NPID: mood, emotional eating, palatable foods, appetite, emotions regulation, eating disorders]

Feeling bad or feeling good, does emotion affect your consumption of food? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence

A systematic review of the association between emotions and eating behaviour in normal and overweight adult populations

A humanities-based explanation for the effects of emotional eating and perceived stress on food choice motives during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The effects of negative and positive mood induction on eating behaviour: A meta-analysis of laboratory studies in the healthy population and eating and weight disorders

The aim of this 2018 study was to determine the association between types of emotional eating with psychological and physical health variables. A total of 189 overweight/obese adults enrolled for this study, completed a number of questionnaires and reported their height and weight. More frequent eating in response to depression, anxiety/anger, and boredom were all related to poorer psychological well-being, more eating disorder symptoms, and increased difficulty managing emotions. While eating in response to depression was most closely related to the psychological variables, all 3 of these previously mentioned emotional eating types were associated with specific disordered eating emotions. Positive emotions were not linked with any of the outcome variables. Braden et al. (2018) suggest there may be unique patterns connecting specific types of emotional eating with psychological outcomes. [NPID: mood, emotional eating, emotion regulation, depression, anxiety, anger, boredom, eating disorders]

Is comfort food actually comforting for emotional eaters? A (moderated) mediation analysis

To eat or not to eat: Effects of food availability on reward system activity during food picture viewing

The neurocognitive mechanisms underlying food cravings and snack food consumption. A combined continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) and EEG study

According to Emilien & Hollis (2017), we need to fully understand the factors that modulate people’s dietary behaviors not only because food choices are linked with risk of developing certain chronic diseases and some forms of cancer but industrial food production is believed to be unsustainable and greatly contribute to the greenhouse gas emission. There is evidence that a combination of factors such as physiology, environment, psychology, culture, socio-economics and genetics, play a part in influencing eating behavior. These single factors have been identified but the authors believe the interaction between these factors will be helpful in developing new models of eating behavior. This current review portrays how complex eating behavior really is by discussing the impact of several important physiological and environmental factors on meal initiation, meal size (satiation) and inter-meal interval (satiety). A number of limitations that may apply to this area of research is also revealed. [NPID: mood, dietary behavior, chronic diseases, cancer, food production, greenhouse gas emissions, satiety]

Breakfast consumption in relation to lowered risk of psychological disorders among Iranian adults

In this 2019 study, focus groups and interviews were organised in the United States with 24 adults (aged between 26-77) who either had a body mass index within the healthy range or had overweight/obesity. The aim was to analyze and compare their internal and external cues for overeating. The five external factors influencing the participants’ food consumption were: environmental cues including food availability and variety; standard expectations for dietary intake; food palatability; social pressures to overeat; and perceived social expectations around eating. Overweight/obese individuals regarded these five factors challenging, and found it difficult to find solutions in order to avoid overconsumption. People found it particularly tough dealing with the social pressures and perceived social expectations. Interventions aimed at healthy weight management may target these potential obstacles to weight control identified in this study. [NPID: mood, internal cues, external cues, external eating, environmental cues, food palatability, social cues, social expectations]

Kenny (2011) states that while humans consume food to keep energy levels balanced for optimal functioning, palatable food is also eaten due to its pleasure-inducing properties, which is what leads to excessive caloric intakes relative to requirements, and significantly contributes to the growing obesity problem in developed countries. Since little is known about the pleasure-related (hedonic) brain systems that affect food intake, compared with the knowledge on homeostatic mechanisms of feeding, this review presents the recent progress made in the understanding of these brain circuitries that control hedonic aspects of eating behaviors. The author also points out that certain brain circuitries stimulated by the uncontrolled intake of palatable foods are similar to those seen to be involved in drugs of abuse. Evidence has emerged suggesting that obesity and drug addiction may share common hedonic mechanisms. Those genetically vulnerable to drug addiction may be at greater risk of developing obesity. [NPID: mood, pleasure, palatable food, hedonic, drug addiction, addiction, obesity]

This 2020 review scoured through peer-reviewed and grey literature to gather and summarize the available data on the key dimensions of eating pleasure, and the link between eating pleasure and its dimensions with dietary and health outcomes. In addition, the reviewers were hoping to collect information on the most promising intervention strategies for encouraging healthy eating while also considering eating pleasure. Out of the 28,908 studies produced through the literature search, 119 were included. The 89 sub-dimensions of eating pleasure were grouped into 22 key dimensions, of which the most frequently seen were those related to sensory experiences (contributing 51.9% of the papers), followed by social experiences (42.7%), food characteristics besides sensory attributes (27.3%), food preparation process (19.1%), novelty (16.4%), variety (14.5%), mindful eating (13.6%), visceral eating (12.7%), place where food is consumed (11.8%) and memories associated with eating (10.9%). Bédard et al. discovered that 45 of the studies (most were cross-sectional) demonstrated eating pleasure’s association with dietary and/or health outcomes. While eating pleasure’s relationship with dietary outcomes were observed to be mostly positive, its correlation with health was considered to be less consistent. The strength of the links between food-consuming pleasure with both health and diet varied for each dimension of eating pleasure examined. As for intervention strategies, focusing on sensory experiences, cooking or sharing activities, mindful eating, and positive food-related memories appeared to hold the most potential in promoting healthy eating. Although we will need evidence-based interventions to collect more data, eating pleasure may be of assistance in the development of healthy eating. [NPID: behavior, pleasure, social, sensory, mindful eating, visceral, visceral eating, memory, cooking]

This book published in 2011 informs us of the ongoing research and latest theories, as well as the measures and assessment tools employed to measure attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors related to food. Blundell et al. describe how quality of life, body image, binge eating, purging are evaluated, in addition to the measures used to assess physical activity, food consumption, restrained eating (restricting food intake to lose or maintain weight), and people’s attitudes and beliefs on obese individuals. This Handbook acts as a reference for researchers specialized in obesity and for clinicians focused on working with patients who show poor dietary behavior. There are also sections in this book on children’s issues with eating and body weight, and the identification of psychological problems in patients with eating disorders. A number of highly regarded scholars and researchers in this field have contributed to this Handbook to bring us up-to-date, evidence-based information. It is said that there is no other resource that offers such a comprehensive collection of assessment methods for eating disorders and weight-related problems in one volume. [NPID: behavior, attitude, quality of life, body image, binge eating, purging, restrained eating, obesity, children’s diet]

This 2018 article summarizes the findings of several studies demonstrating a technique that can enhance people’s food choices even in an environment filled with food temptation. According to two studies, there are cognitive strategies that decrease cravings for unhealthy foods, and heighten cravings for healthy foods. Across four studies, these strategies have been shown to, as part of brief training, increase healthy food choices in the presence of unhealthy alternatives without instructions to use the strategies. Moreover, this training reduced the participants’ food intakes. Clinical guidelines and public health interventions aiming at preventing and managing obesity may benefit from implementing these plans. Boswell et al. emphasize the great influence that craving has on individuals who frequently eat the cheaper, high-calorie, unhealthy foods instead of healthy foods. It is believed that exposure to these unhealthy foods (including food advertisements) can raise craving levels and basically predicts eating and weight. Studies 1 and 2 emphasized the benefits of consuming healthy foods, and changed the subjects’ perspective on the value of food, enhancing willingness to pay for healthy options. While studies 3 and 4 employed different types of cognitive strategies to improve people’s food choices. Furthermore, study 5 also reduced food consumption by 93 to 121 calories, while study 6 backed up the need for a cognitive strategy also used in studies 3 and 4 called “Regulation of Craving Training”. Considering all these studies mentioned, cognitive strategies alter craving levels and food valuation, while the training also helps cut down on unhealthy eating even in obese subjects. [NPID: behavior, temptation, cognition, cravings, obesity, food advertisements, advertising, food advertising, food valuation]

Since there is mixed evidence demonstrating that food cue reactivity and craving are conditioned responses that make people eat more and later gain weight, this 2016 article examined the predictive effects of food cue reactivity and craving on dietary and weight-related outcomes through meta-analysis. A medium effect was observed across the 69 statistics from the 45 reports (accounting for 3,292 participants), exposure to food cues and the experience of craving may significantly contribute to dietary behavior and weight gain. Furthermore, tonic and cue-induced cravings were found to have a medium effect on eating behavior, according to the follow-up tests. However, there was no marked variation in effect sizes based on BMI, age, or dietary restraint. But importantly, Boswell & Kober uncovered that viewing pictures and videos were associated with a similar effect size to the exposure to real food, and with a stronger effect size than olfactory cues (from smelling). In conclusion, food cue reactivity, cue-induced craving and tonic craving seem to predict food-related outcomes. [NPID: behavior, food cues, cravings, conditioned response, dietary restraint, olfactory cues, smell]

Here, Burger et al. (2016) analyzes the construct of hedonic hunger (high appetitive drive in response to food cues) using the data taken from 3 separate studies. The plan was to identify correlations between the Power of Food Scale (PFS) scores and neural responsivities during consumption, with perceptual hedonic (pleasure) ratings of food images, the anticipated intake level of palatable foods, behavioral food reinforcement, and changes in BMI and binge eating over time. The results indicated associations between hedonic hunger with behavioral food reinforcement, perceptual hedonic ratings, and also responses in the right and left postcentral gyrus’ (brain regions implicated in oral somatosensory processing during cue-elicited anticipation of food intake). Although hedonic hunger was not found to be linked with the participants’ BMI at baseline or with alterations in BMI over the 2-year follow-up, it was strongly correlated with binge eating at baseline (in 2 samples). To summarize, there is a high probability that people with high hedonic hunger show increased neural and perceptual responses to cues of palatable foods, already binge eat, and also have heightened drive to eat these tasty but unhealthy foods. [NPID: behavior, hedonic hunger, food cues, appetite, appetitive drive, pleasure, binge eating]

Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.), 25(4), 713–720. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21790 In this 2017 study, 339 adults with an average age of 29.1 and mean BMI of 26.7, were assessed at baseline and followed up after 6 months to find out how chronic stress, morning cortisol concentrations, and appetite-related hormone levels (leptin, ghrelin, and insulin) relate with future weight gain and food cravings. Interviews taking into account participants’ food cravings were also undertaken. Overall, 49.9% of the sample gained weight over the 6 months period participating in the study. Despite this, food cravings and chronic stress decreased over the 6 months (statistically significant). Analysis models adjusted for demographic and clinical covariates revealed that subjects with higher total ghrelin at baseline had markedly higher food cravings at the follow-up. Furthermore, it was discovered that people with higher chronic stress, insulin, and cortisol were likely to gain weight later in life. These results suggest that ghrelin can affect and increase food cravings as well as reward-motivated dietary behaviors. Chao et al. would like to see supplementary studies evaluating the effectiveness of some stress-reducing strategies in returning the cortisol responses back to normal levels and preventing future weight gain. [NPID: behavior, stress, cortisol, hormones, cravings, weight gain, ghrelin]

This essay published in 1994 explains how emotional regulation and dysregulation may have developed based on a clinical viewpoint. Cole et al. state that dysregulation in emotion control could arise and become a part of a damaging coping mechanism if the person is put under certain circumstances. Emotional symptoms are commonly seen in various forms of psychopathology. Dysregulation can be somewhat characterized by the subject’s use of cultural display rules, ability to reflect on the complexity and value of his/her own thoughts in a healthy way, access to a range of emotions, and ability to adapt between emotions in terms of intensity and duration. The authors mention that there is a framework which allows parties to assess how emotions are regulatory, how their governance changes over time, and to determine under what conditions an adaptive emotion process can be modified into a pattern of dysregulation associated with mental disorders. This research requires the study of children with or without mental health problems, with paradigms in place to allow researchers to see the children’s reactions beyond what they can personally report. It is believed to be particularly important to examine children and their families in emotionally challenging situations since the environment around the children appears to play a crucial factor in the disturbance of the kids’ interpersonal and intrapsychic functioning, as well as their learning of emotion control. [NPID: behavior, emotional regulation, coping mechanisms, psychopathology, emotion control, interpersonal, interpersonal functioning, intrapsychic functioning]

This 2016 study tries to differentiate 2 approaches that research studies use to describe eating pleasure: “Epicurean” pleasure which refers to the pleasure felt based on the aesthetic appreciation of the sensory and symbolic value of the food; and the eating pleasure that has been associated with short-term visceral (felt internally) sensations triggered by hunger, external cues, or internal emotional urges. Cornil & Chandon developed scales for Epicurean eating pleasure and utilized the external eating and emotional eating scales to find differences in tendencies to experience Epicurean eating and visceral pleasure. The results demonstrated a higher prevalence of Epicurean eating pleasure among the women than the men when the analysis model didn’t consider age, income and education. Unlike visceral eating pleasure, the tendency to feel aesthetic-related eating pleasure was linked with a preference for smaller food portions and better health, but not with higher BMI. The researchers believe that a more holistic approach ought to be taken to describe eating pleasure, one that takes into account the positive role of Epicurean eating pleasure in healthy eating and well-being. [NPID: behavior, pleasure, epicurean pleasure, sensory, symbolism, visceral, external cues, internal emotional urges, emotional eating, epicurean eating, visceral pleasure, portions, portion control, holistic health]

While food consumption is governed by a complex neural system consisting of the hypothalamic centers and peripheral satiety system (gastrointestinal and pancreatic hormones), this 2016 review proposes several possible mechanisms in which highly palatable diets develop. It is important to discuss the alterations in dietary patterns seen over the last few decades that may have caused the currently high obesity rates. Firstly, highly palatable and caloric foods are known to modify appetite regulation. In animal obesity models, an example of a palatable diet, the cafeteria diet, led to increases in body weight. Furthermore, palatable diets can create deficits in brain reward function similar to that seen in addiction. The mechanism of neural adaptation triggered by palatable foods is also not too different from those that have been reported for non-drug addictions and long-term drug use. This influence that palatable foods have on people’s brain reward system may be what drives them to overeat and may contribute to the gaining of weight. [NPID: behavior, hypothalamus, satiety, highly palatable food, appetite regulation, addiction]

This 2019 study was conducted to determine whether attention, mood, and satiety can be influenced by meal composition and post-meal activity, as suggested by previous research, but among a sample of subjects at genetic risk of developing cardiovascular/neurodegenerative diseases. Each participant (26 in total) took part in 4 dietary interventions including the high-fat Western diet, the Western diet (WD), Mediterranean-type diet, and the Mediterranean diet (all identical in energy content). The subjects then walked (on a moderate level) for 30 minutes. Attention, mood, satiety (fullness), and plasma cortisol concentrations were measured at fasting and at 1.5, 3.0, 4.5 hours following consumption. After eating each meal, attention was found to increase continuously for all 4 interventions. But attention decreased after post-WD walking. The diet interventions did not appear to affect post-meal mood, however, which was generally deemed “good” across all interventions. Moreover, cortisol concentrations in the blood did drop after intake of each diet, and the maximum level of satiety/fullness was documented 1.5 hours after meal intake. Postprandial satiety was in fact higher after the Mediterranean diet than after the Western diet. In summary, meal composition was not shown to markedly impact attention or mood and resting rather than walking after having a typical Western diet-type meal seems to have beneficial consequences on attention levels. Furthermore, following a Mediterranean diet could reduce energy consumption and possibly assist in the control of weight due to its strong and long-lasting effect on satiety. [NPID: behavior, attention, mood, satiety, post-meal activity, meal composition, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, western diet, high-fat, mediterranean diet]

Since glucocorticoids predispose individuals to eat low-quality foods high in calories, sugar, and fat, Duong et al. (2012) investigated the relationship between cortisol levels (vital type of glucocorticoid), food quality choice, and poor blood glucose control among patients with type-2 diabetes. The study selected 27 healthy controls and 27 type 2 diabetes (T2DM) participants, all matched in terms of age, gender, and education. After recording a 3-day consecutive food diary, the participants’ intake of “high quality” and “low quality” foods were noted using a standardized method with high reliability. After controlling for variables such as BMI, log-transformed cortisol (LogC) predicted the percent of low-quality foods but not the proportion of high-quality foods chosen. HbA1C also significantly predicted both the proportions of high quality and low-quality foods in this adjusted analysis model. Also, the study found that the interaction between HbA1C levels and low-quality food choice may be mediated by cortisol. This indicates that HbA1C directly and indirectly (mediated by cortisol) affects low quality food choice. The evidence suggests that poorly controlled glucose concentrations result in the elevated consumption of low-quality foods. [NPID: behavior, glucocorticoids, cortisol, diabetes, glucose, insulin]

This 2017 study analyzed how the surrounding food environments and cues may predict the daily dietary behaviors of overweight and obese adults. Many studies have implied previously that the food environment influences eating behaviors. Also, individual dietary behavior, which is believed to be a risk factor for obesity, depends on internal and external cues. Over 14 days, this study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to assess the behaviors of the 51 overweight/obese adults. The participants’ meal and snack consumption were examined randomly and multiple times daily, simultaneously with cues and momentary food environment. The cues related to increased likelihood of eating were both internal (affect) and external (food availability, social situation, observing others eat). The surrounding food environment at the time of eating were found to predict meals and snacking: overweight and obese individuals were more likely to eat high-energy snacks when fast food restaurants were close by, and low-energy snacks while supermarkets were within proximity. Elliston et al. conclude that real-time food intake behavior is associated with internal and external cues in overweight and obese adults. Also, how the individual perceives the surrounding food environment influences food choice. [NPID: food cues, obese, obesity, affect, food availability, social situation, snacking, internal cues, external cues, perception]

Erlanson-Albertsson (2005) describe the process by which palatable food is believed to perturb our appetite control. It is the interaction between hunger and satiety (fullness) signals produced in the hypothalamus and the peripheral organs that plays a vital role in the feedback system that appetite regulation is a part of. Most hunger signals are expressed in the hypothalamus while ghrelin is also formed in the peripheral organs when the body senses a deficiency in energy. Sometimes satiety or fullness is communicated by the hypothalamus too but there are many generated by the digestive tract in response to food consumption. Furthermore, leptin and insulin are mobilized in response to deviation from the nutritional state. These satiety signals can inhibit completely the expression of hunger signals or if not, lessen their effects. This article highlights the up-regulation of hunger and satiety signal expression by palatable foods, which lowers the sensation of being full, and activates the reward system. The way in which fat- and sugar-rich foods interrupt normal appetite regulation may explain the rising obesity rates seen across the globe. [NPID: behavior, appetitive control, satiety, hypothalamus, ghrelin, leptin, insulin, hunger signals, reward system, high-fat high-sugar, western-style diet]

The purpose of this 2019 study was to quantitatively define hyperpalatable foods (HPF), and to use this definition to determine the prevalence in the U.S. food system. So far, the meaning of hyperpalatable foods has not been particularly specific and have been described using terms such as fast food and sweets. Fazzino et al. therefore quantified constituents such as fats, simple sugars, carbohydrates, and sodium, by collecting the common definitions written in the literature and using a type of nutrition software. The researchers found three clusters according to the research literature that defined HPF: > 25% kcal fat and ≥ 0.30% sodium by weight; > 20% kcal fat and > 20% kcal from sugar; and > 40% kcal carbohydrates with ≥ 0.20% sodium by weight. When this definition was applied to the Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies (FNDDS), it was revealed that 62% of foods met HPF criteria. Those identified to meet the criteria included labeled reduced or low fat and vegetables cooked in creams, sauces, or fats. A substantial proportion of foods in the U.S. food system may be hyperpalatable including foods that had previously not been regarded as HPF. [NPID: behavior, hyperpalatable foods, fast food, sweets, high-fat high-sugar, western-style diet]

Fischer et al. (2020) try to better understand the reasons why it is difficult for obese patients that dropped in weight (reduced obese state) to maintain their weight loss. The obstacles that these people face have been qualitatively identified but this study plans to quantitatively assess the patients’ perspective during weight maintenance in the hopes that important barriers can be established using the data. Information was collected from 102 participants who tried to maintain their weight after completing either non-surgical weight loss or a lifestyle intervention for morbid obesity. Follow-up data from 88 of the subjects were available, which revealed 4 meaningful factors related to weight maintenance barriers. These were: 'Hedonic Hunger', 'Mental Distress', 'Binge Eating', and 'Demoralization'. Each factor was associated with weight regain, although ‘Binge Eating’ was determined to be the most prominent predictor of the patient not being able to prevent weight gain again. [NPID: behavior, obesity, weight maintenance, hedonic hunger, mental distress, binge eating, demoralization, weight gain]

While snacking models have shown that potato chips’ impact on energy intake correlates to their fat/carbohydrate content (FCHc), this 2019 study aimed to evaluate whether this fat/carbohydrate content can also influence the energy intake patterns and reward processing of rodents. The snacking model used in this study treated the satiated rats to foods rich in FCHc for 10 minutes three times a day. The rodents were discovered to consume higher levels of energy in a day when these FCHc-rich foods were unavailable, compared to days without access. There were also signs of binge eating episodes, with the animals eating 55% of their daily energy intake at times of limited high fat/carbohydrate feed access. When these fat- and carbohydrate-rich snacking opportunities were removed for six weeks and reintroduced to the rodents, not only did the total daily energy consumption rise, but the relative quantity of energy obtained from the FCHc-rich foods were also greater. In comparison with standard chow, snack foods and fat/carbohydrate foods were potent food reinforcers in satiated mice. The fat and carbohydrate content of the feeds appear to possess strong reinforcing properties and are likely to be influential in the alteration of food intake patterns and quantity when animals are given unrestricted food access. [NPID: behavior, reward, fat, carbohydrates, carbs, binge eating]

Hill (2007) utilizes past research to inform us more about the psychology behind food craving since it may be subtly different to that commonly perceived. Food cravings are extremely common and are actually hedonic (pleasure-related) responses to food. They may be strongly linked with liking but does not equate to increased food consumption. Taking a look at the assumed influence of dieting on food craving in cross-sectional studies have shown mixed and unconvincing results. However, prospective and experimental research provides us with a clearer relationship. Dieting or restrained eating was reported to generally lead to greater chance of experiencing food cravings, whereas fasting diminishes cravings. The author reveals that attempting to restrain from eating or depriving yourself of a particular food is associated with elevated craving levels for foods inaccessible at the time of consumption. This suggests there are cognitive, conditioning and emotional underlying processes involved when a person senses cravings. Thus, the popular perception of cravings, evoked by specific nutritional needs, may not be completely valid - its connection to human eating behavior may be more complex. [NPID: behavior, cravings, hedonic, dieting, food restriction, restrained eating, fasting, cognition, conditioning, emotional eating]

Although the common assumption is that food cravings are the result of dieting due to the food energy deprivation, Hill et al. (1991) decided to further investigate food cravings. In phase one of this two-phase study, the 206 women participants were assessed based on a food craving scale and administered with the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire and the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire. Food craving was found to be weakly connected to dietary restraint, while its strong and significant correlations were with external eating, emotional eating and susceptibility to hunger. The second phase involved the recording of food consumption, daily mood, and food craving episodes by 10 women who regularly felt cravings and 10 women who rarely craved food. There were a few variations in dietary behavior between the two groups of ladies. The regular cravers consumed slightly more daily energy than the irregular cravers, felt more bored and experienced more anxiety during the day. The researchers also highlighted the reporting of dissatisfied mood prior to the cravings. These two phases suggest that food cravings are closely related with mood and do not appear to require the deprivation of food to arise. The pre- and post-craving mood in particular were found to be connected with cravings. [NPID: behavior, cravings, mood, external eating, anxiety, emotional eating]

Johnson & Wardle (2014) here argue that although food palatability and variety have been repeatedly shown by human and animal studies to heavily influence appetite stimulation, satiety (feeling of fullness) delay, and the promotion of excessive energy intake, there is a limited amount of evidence estimating how strongly the weight of an individual human being is affected. In addition, the paradigm in the laboratory is not the same as the eating environment in a natural setting. Past studies have revealed that both food palatability and variety have a significant impact on short-term food consumption, with their increases linked with weight gain also in animal models. But the authors note that there are individual differences in vulnerability to the palatability effect, which can determine how likely the individuals are to gain weight. While the knowledge on how palatability and variety interact with eating is progressing, more intervention and epidemiological studies are needed to confirm whether controlling the surrounding food environment is crucial to tackling this obesity crisis, and for these laboratory findings to be considered and applied by public health. [NPID: behavior, food variety, food palatability, food environment, obesity]

The objective of this 2018 study was to assess the people of Quebec City, Canada on their perceptions and definitions of eating pleasure and healthy eating. Landry et al. wanted to find out if there are similarities in how the sample define the two terms, and also to determine if sex and body mass index plays a role in how the questions are answered. The idea was to gather information on the use of eating pleasure in promoting healthy eating, in order to inform future interventions and potentially health practitioners. Ninety-two participants were involved in the study, taking part in the 12 focus groups. These subjects included men and women with normal weight and those with obesity. In most cases, eating pleasure was defined through food characteristics connected to the sensory quality of the food and the psychosocial aspect of eating. But when asked to define healthy eating, most of the partakers mentioned food characteristics related to nutritional quality, and ways to control dietary behavior. The subgroups were found to be similar in their perceptions (taking into account the most noticeable perceptions) based on sex and BMI. So overall, the concepts of eating pleasure and healthy eating were different among the Quebecers but seems to be mostly compatible. Applying the knowledge on eating pleasure may hold potential in interventions that recommend healthy eating. [NPID: behavior, perceptions, eating pleasure]

Lowe & Butyrn (2007) discuss the phenomenon called hedonic hunger, which is the elevated appetite a person feels due to the food environment. The psychological effect of hedonic hunger is said to be similar to that felt when undertaking activities such as compulsive gambling and drug use. The drive for pleasure (hedonism) is increased. It had been assumed that when a normal-weight individual tries to restrict food intake in order to lose or maintain weight, the irregular appetite is due to the dys-homeostasis (imbalance in diet-related systems) induced by the diet. However, the writers of this article review studies that may suggest that the deviation in appetite levels are more likely to be a result of hedonic hunger (eating less than wanted rather than less than required). This report also describes the Power of Food Scale (PFS), a measure of individual variation in appetitive responsiveness to rewarding properties of the food environment. According to preliminary evidence, this measure is valid and reliable, and when combined with altering food availability and modifying palatability, could be a promising approach to studying hedonic hunger. [NPID: behavior, hedonic hunger, food environment, addiction, compulsion, reward, palatability]

According to Lutter & Nestler (2009), the control of food intake depends on the homeostatic and hedonic (pleasure-related) pathways. The increased desire to eat upon depletion of energy stores is referred to as the homeostatic control, but these pathways can be overridden by hedonic or reward-based regulation even at times of relative energy abundance by elevating the drive to consume highly palatable foods. The regular homeostatic governance of food intake, which is a unique aspect of food addiction, is discussed in this article. Also reviewed are the numerous mechanisms by which repeated use of drugs of abuse modifies neuronal function and makes the person more motivated to consume these addictive substances. These drug-induced alterations in neuronal reward circuitry are then compared to the known impacts of continuous intake of highly palatable foods. The neuronal adaptations evoked by these high-fat and high-sugar diets could have clinical implications in cases of obesity and neuropsychiatric cases such as bulimia nervosa and Prader-Willi syndrome. [NPID: behavior, hedonic, desire, craving, reward, highly palatable foods, food addiction, obesity, bulimia, Prader-Willi syndrome]

As obese people have been characterized by their lower executive functions and enhanced food cravings, Massicote et al. (2019) set out to determine if executive functions were linked to food cravings in the context of obesity. Another objective of this study was to find factors that predict highly palatable food intake and bland food consumption. Executive function was tested using a delayed discounting task (assesses impulsivity towards food and money) as well as the color-word interference test (CWIT; inhibition/flexibility). The participants were also shown images in addition to real food, before gaining access to unrestricted amounts of both highly palatable and bland foods. The researchers had hypothesized that executive functions would be negatively associated with food craving. The inhibition/flexibility condition of the color-word interference test (CWIT) did inversely correlate with food craving. Moreover, highly palatable food consumption was significantly predicted by food craving following induction, although bland food intake was not. This study has revealed a relationship between lower inhibition/flexibility and greater vulnerability to experience food cravings, which may have huge implications in managing obesity. The findings also supported the link between food craving and consumption, particularly connecting food craving with highly palatable foods but not bland foods. These conclusions could lead to interventions aimed at reducing food cravings being developed in the future to help people lose weight. [NPID: behavior, craving, executive function, obesity, impulsivity, inhibition, flexibility]

While the most commonly used assessment for examining food cravings is the 39-item trait version of the Food Cravings Questionnaire (FCQ), Meule et al. (2014) evaluated the reliability and validity of the other 15-item state version. The first study administered online questionnaires to a sample of 323 students, while the second study involved 70 female students performing a working memory task that included food and neutral pictures. The FCQ-T-r (FCQ version with 15 items) was found to show high internal consistency in study 1. The questionnaire scores were positively associated with BMI scores, and negatively correlated with dieting success. Study 2 revealed higher levels of food cravings after completing the task than before. This increase in food cravings was positively linked with the FCQ-T-r. In some variable-controlled models, the longer the subject had gone without eating, the higher degree of food craving they had before performing the task. On the other hand, FCQ-T-r scores were found to positively predict food craving after the task. Meule et al. state that trait food cravings are therefore specifically linked with state food cravings stimulated by palatable food cues, but not with state food cravings related to solely hunger. Since FCQ-T-r scores predicted cue-elicited food craving, it was concluded that the 15-item state version of the FCQ is a valid and reliable measure to efficiently examine experiences of food craving as a trait. [NPID: behavior, craving, working memory, memory, trait food cravings, state food cravings, food cues]

Meule & Kübler (2012) highlight the increasing amount of evidence being released suggesting that food cravings and excessive food intake are due to addictive processes. This present study administered the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS), a novel measure for identifying those with addictive dietary patterns. The respondents of this online study completed this YFAS as well as the Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait (FCQ-T). Those participants diagnosed with food addiction according to the YFAS had higher scores on all food craving subscales except for anticipation of positive reinforcement (which was thought to perhaps come as a result of eating). Analysis models later indicated positive correlations between all the food craving subscales with food addiction symptoms, while positive reinforcement could negatively predict signs of food addiction. This study therefore demonstrates that people with addictive eating patterns feel more food cravings but do not expect positive reinforcement through eating. [NPID: behavior, cravings, addiction, positive reinforcement]

Since hedonic hunger (food consumption solely for pleasure and not to maintain energy homeostasis) is believed to involve rewarding mediators such as ghrelin and endocannabinoids, Monteleone et al. (2012) set out to explore the roles of these substances. In this study, the blood concentrations of eight satiated healthy subjects were monitored while they were given unlimited access to highly palatable food and non-palatable food also (both with equal amounts of energy and nutrients). Peripheral levels of ghrelin and the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol both increased as food was consumed for pleasure. On the other hand, the plasma levels of the other endocannabinoid anandamide and of anandamide-related mediators oleoylethanolamide and palmitoylethanolamide, were found to progressively decline following consumption of both highly palatable and non-pleasurable foods. Plasma 2-arachidonoyl glycerol and ghrelin positively interact with one another during hedonic food consumption but not non-hedonic eating. This preliminary study suggests that when individuals become driven to eat due to the presence of pleasurable food rather than food deprivation, two rewarding signals are triggered peripherally. [NPID: behavior, hedonic hunger, reward, ghrelin, endocannabinoids, highly palatable food, pleasure]

This 2021 study investigated whether total negative affect per day and level of negative affect variability per day possess influence on the likelihood of the individual eating high-calorie snacks in the presence of snacking cues. The data was extracted from an ecological momentary assessment study which took food logs and tested their 60 participants for 14 days using known snack cues. As with previous studies, the chances of the subject consuming a snack increased when food was available, when others were eating, and when higher negative affect was experienced. These associations between snack consumption with food availability and presence of others eating were significantly moderated by negative affect variability. In other words, correlations between snack cues and high-calorie snacking were weaker on days of higher negative affect variability. However, negative affect levels did not moderate the relationship between cue and snacking. In conclusion, variability in negative affect can have an influence on the snacking cue-behavior interaction. A complex relationship is suggested here between negative affect and calorie-dense snacking, perhaps requiring clearer conceptualizations. [NPID: behavior, negative affect, affect, food cues, snacking cues, snack cues]

Since it is not clear which subjective and biobehavioral processes increase the overeating of highly palatable (HP) foods, Sinha et al. (2019) examined subjects on their motivation to eat HP foods, measured their intake and neuroendocrine responses when exposed to food and stress cues. There were 8 lean and 12 overweight/obese participants in this controlled, hospital-based, 3-day laboratory experiment. On each of the 3 days, the subjects viewed images (food/stress/neutral cue) for 5 minutes before taking part in a food snack test. The control was a neutral-relaxing cue. Each person was exposed to one imagery condition per day, and the order of these exposures were randomized. Each individual was also assessed repeatedly on their HP food craving and caloric intake, anxiety levels, as well as their cortisol and ghrelin concentrations. The results demonstrated that food cues induced higher HP food craving and consumption compared with the neutral condition. Stress also led to elevated HP food craving and intake in the overweight and obese group, but not in the lean sample group. Greater highly palatable food consumption could be predicted by the increase in food cravings induced by stress and food cues. Additionally, ghrelin levels rose upon exposure to food and stress cues, but these increases in ghrelin were only associated with HP food consumption in the obese/overweight group. Higher cortisol levels were also observed after encountering food cues, leading to greater food craving and intake. Not only do these results support and validate a laboratory model of HP food motivation and intake, this study identified subjective and neuroendocrine responses that may have significance in managing obesity risk and body weight. [NPID: behavior, motivation, highly palatable foods, stress, food cues, anxiety, cortisol, ghrelin, obesity]

This 2018 study applied the cognitive processing model of alcohol craving (CPMA) while investigating the role of food craving in the already well-established restrained eating–overeating relationship linked with binge eating disorder (BED). A sample of 1058 respondents completed an online survey assessing restrained eating, trait food craving, uncontrolled eating, and emotional eating. After implementing the CPMA, food craving was found to significantly affect, in an indirect manner, the association between restrained eating and both uncontrolled and emotional eating. Gender did not appear to influence the dynamics between restrained eating and different facets of overeating. This study has indicated that to target binge eating behaviors, it may be more effective to give consideration to the activation of food craving rather than to the reduction of restrained eating. Moreover, Verzijl et al. have uncovered that food craving is a target with potential to cut down people’s binge and overeating behaviors, regardless of the person’s gender. [NPID: craving, behavior, CPMA, binge eating, restrained eating, trait food craving, uncontrolled eating, emotional eating, overeating]

This 2004 review focuses on the food-triggered signals produced by the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that act on the central nervous system and induce the body to sense fullness and satiety. Woods explains that while there are many enzymes, hormones, and other substrates secreted by the GI tract in response to food ingestion, only a few can influence food intake directly. Most of the chemical messengers cause termination of eating, but one GI signal that increases meal size is ghrelin. The peptide hormone, CCK, has been investigated the most out of all the GI signals. Administering CCK or other satiety messages has been discovered to induce smaller meals to be consumed, while blocking their actions can result in the intake of larger meals. The author states that the majority of the factors that affect a person’s level of food consumption act by changing the body’s sensitivity to these satiety messages. Examples of influencers include adiposity signals, habits, learning, social situation, and stressors. [NPID: craving, satiety, ghrelin, CCK, stress, social situation, learning, habits, adiposity signals]

This 2014 was the first in its time to investigate hedonic hunger (appetitive drive to eat for pleasure rather than hunger) among individuals with eating disorders. Hedonic hunger has been associated with overeating and uncontrolled overeating. Witt & Lowe therefore gathered a sample of patients with anorexia nervosa, restricting type (AN-R), anorexia nervosa, binge-purge type (AN-B/P), and bulimia nervosa (BN), and assessed the participants on hedonic hunger using the Power of Food Scale (PFS). The aims of the study included evaluating the relationship between PFS scores and frequency of binge eating and determining whether baseline PFS scores could be used to predict weight change during treatment. Individuals with bulimia nervosa scored higher on the PFS (hedonic hunger measure) compared to anorexia nervosa sufferers of either type (restricting and binge-purge), although those with binge-purge type appeared to score higher than than those with restring type anorexia. In uncontrolled and controlled analysis models, greater PFS scores were found to correlate with more frequent binge eating among patients with bulimia. A similar pattern was also observed among subjects with anorexia. Finally, PFS scores predicted alterations in weight in anorexic participants but not in bulimic patients. These findings suggest that hedonic processes may have vital roles in triggering binge eating, and that there may be potential in managing hedonic appetite in weight management among people with anorexia. [NPID: craving, hedonic hunger, appetite, eating disorders, overeating, binge eating, anorexia, bulimia]

In contrast to the belief that high-caloric foods make us happy and alleviate negative moods, this 2017 study points out that consuming “healthy” foods such as fruits and vegetables may have beneficial effects on mental as well as physical health. Wahl et al. investigated people’s real life dietary behaviour across 8 days using a smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment. Additionally, the team looked at the participants’ in-the-moment eating happiness to find out more about this food choice and well-being relationship. Of the 14 main food categories evaluated, vegetable consumption was discovered to have contributed the most to the eating happiness of the subjects over the 8 test days. Coming in second, sweets also induced a level of eating happiness comparable to that caused by “healthy” food choices i.e. fruits and vegetables. Another finding was that dinner evoked joy to a similar degree to snacking. [NPID: craving, mental health, mood, happiness, well-being]