The VTA is a dopamine-producing region located in the midbrain. It plays a central role in the brain’s reward system by projecting to areas such as the nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala. The VTA is involved in motivation, reinforcement learning, and the processing of rewarding stimuli, including food, making it a key player in reward-driven eating behavior.

The short-lived hedonic relief created by the satisfaction of eating impulses. Visceral eating pleasure is the by-product of relieving a visceral urge, often beyond the eaters’ volitional control. It can be summarized by its valence (pleasant or unpleasant), regardless of the rich aesthetic experience of eating (Cornil & Chandon, 2016).

A measurement scale (i.e., a validated questionnaire) is used within the fields of psychology and nutrition to measure one’s subjective experience or attitude to a stimulus by indicating one’s level of agreement to a statement by selecting a position along a continuous line between two end-points. The VAS has been used in nutrition research to measure ingestive behavior, pre- and postprandial hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and prospective food consumption (PFC) (Douglass & Leidy, 2019).

The physiological and neurophysiological changes involving “visual hunger” experienced in an organism in response to increased exposure to images of desirable food (Spence et al., 2016).

Visual satiety refers to the phenomenon where the pleasantness of a food’s appearance decreases after repeated exposure, even if the taste or smell hasn’t changed. This decline in visual appeal can influence food choices and consumption, as the sight of food becomes less appealing, potentially leading to reduced food intake.

Volition is the cognitive process of making a conscious decision and acting on it.

Two distinct neural systems influencing eating behavior. Wanting is the craving or motivation to seek food, primarily driven by dopamine and often triggered by environmental cues or learned associations. Liking is the pleasure or satisfaction derived from actually eating food, mediated by opioid and endocannabinoid systems, not dopamine. “Wanting” drives food-seeking behavior, while “liking” refers to the immediate sensory enjoyment of eating.

The Western diet typically refers to a dietary pattern characterized by high consumption of processed foods, refined sugars, unhealthy fats (such as saturated and trans fats), red meat, and low intake of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and seeds. It’s associated with higher rates of obesity, heart disease, diabetes, and other chronic health conditions prevalent in Western countries.

White blood cells (WBCs) are blood cells that play a crucial role in the immune system by defending the body against infections. There are various types, each with specific functions in immune res