The interindividual differences in the frequency and intensity of food cravings experienced by an individual (Richard et al., 2017).

Transcellular diffusion transports ions, sugar molecules, vitamins, and minerals through epithelial cells’ apical (top) and basolateral (bottom) surfaces via transporter proteins. Nutrient absorption in the GIT is an example of this process (Vanuytsel et al., 2021),.

An approach that combines similar elements from different theories to create a model that integrates them.

Ultraprocessed foods are industrially manufactured products made from refined ingredients, additives, and preservatives, with little to no whole food content. They are primarily designed for convenience and long shelf life (Hedrih, 2024; Monteiro et al., 2019). They are most often hyperpalatable, making them easy to overconsume. Common examples include sugary cereals, instant noodles, soft drinks, and packaged snacks.

Unhealthy eating behaviors are patterns of eating driven by psychological factors, such as stress, emotional distress, or distorted body image, rather than physiological hunger. These behaviors may include emotional eating, restrictive dieting, binge eating, and other patterns that disrupt normal eating habits and negatively impact both mental and physical health.

Urban living pertains to residing in cities or densely populated areas. It involves various aspects of daily life, including housing, transportation, employment, recreation, and social interactions. Urban living presents both opportunities and challenges, such as access to amenities and services, environmental sustainability, and issues related to infrastructure and social equity.

Urban stress refers to the heightened psychological and emotional pressure experienced by individuals living in urban environments. Factors contributing to urban stress include congestion, noise, pollution, and the fast-paced lifestyle characteristic of cities.

Urbanization is the process through which an increasing proportion of a population resides in urban areas, resulting in the growth and expansion of cities and towns. This typically involves the migration of people from rural or less developed areas to urban centers in search of employment, better living conditions, and access to improved infrastructure and services.

A surgical procedure involves removing all or a part of the vagus nerve that innervates the stomach, interrupting the nerve’s signal transmission (Rabben et al., 2016).

The vagus nerve is the 10th cranial nerve, one of the longest and most complex. It originates in the brainstem and travels to the neck, thorax, and abdomen, connecting the brain to the rest of the body’s organs. It regulates blood flow, heart rate, reflex actions, breathing, digestion, and other essential processes in the body via the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). The vagus nerve is a direct physical connection between the gut and the brain (Breit et al., 2018).