mental health Archives - The Center for Nutritional Psychology

Eating Junk Food Linked to Higher Risk of Depression, Study Finds

Posted on June 8, 2025June 17, 2025 by CNP Staff

A meta-analysis published in BMC Psychiatry found that individuals consuming junk food frequently had 16% higher odds of having depression and 33% higher odds of experiencing increased stress.
Junk food consumption was also associated with 15% higher odds of developing mental health problems in general.
The meta-analysis included 17 studies with a total of 159,885 participants.

We all know that preparing nutritious and healthy meals can sometimes require quite a bit of work. We need to buy all the groceries, spend time cleaning and cutting them, cook them using various methods, season them, and finally serve them as a dish. This work becomes more challenging when we are ill, overworked, or not feeling well for various reasons. In such situations, many consider affordable, ready-made food or food that can be prepared for eating with minimal effort (e.g., by simply heating it) to be a good alternative, given its alluring taste. However, many such food items available in the market are junk food.

Junk food

“Junk food” (Hedrih, 2025) is food that is high in calories, sugar, salt, and unhealthy fats, but low in essential nutrients like fiber, vitamins, and minerals. It includes ultraprocessed foods, fast foods, unhealthy snacks, and sugar-sweetened beverages (Ejtahed et al., 2024). Ultraprocessed foods, a subcategory of junk foods, are industrially manufactured products made from refined ingredients, additives, and preservatives, with little to no whole food content. They are primarily designed for convenience and long shelf life (Hedrih, 2023, 2024a). Examples of junk Food include chips, candy, soda, fast food burgers, and pre-fried snacks (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Characterization of the term “junk food” used in research

Regular consumption of junk food is linked to obesity, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and other chronic health conditions (Rajveer & Monika, 2012). These foods tend to be heavily processed and designed to be hyper-palatable, making them easy to overeat. Junk food is widely marketed, especially to children and adolescents, contributing to unhealthy eating habits (Harris & Graff, 2012).

Junk food and health

In recent decades, scientists have been paying increased attention to the relationship between food, eating habits, and health. The world is currently going through an obesity pandemic (Wong et al., 2022), with the percentage of overweight and obese individuals in double digits in most countries. Unlike in previous centuries, when humans struggled to produce enough calories for everyone and avoid recurring famines, modern human society’s challenge is maintaining food intake regulation that supports good health.

Studies have so far shown that a diet based on foods rich in easily digestible fats and sugar (such as junk food) can dysregulate the food intake regulation mechanisms in our brains, leading to obesity (Hedrih, 2024b; McDougle et al., 2024). This mechanism is well-known in studies on rodents, where such a diet is referred to as an obesogenic diet and is used to experimentally induce obesity (Ikemoto et al., 1996).

The world is currently going through an obesity pandemic
(Wong et al., 2022).

Some researchers propose that humans can develop patterns of behavior around food similar to those found in substance use disorders. They refer to it as food addiction, suggesting that ultraprocessed foods, along with additives found in such foods, lead to this addiction (Gearhardt et al., 2023; Hedrih, 2023).

Unlike in previous centuries, the primary challenge for modern human society is maintaining food intake regulation.

The current study

Study author Hanieh-Sadat Ejtahed wanted to integrate the findings of published scientific studies on the links between junk food consumption and mental health disorders in adults (Ejtahed et al., 2024). They conducted a systematic review and a meta-analysis.

These authors searched the databases of scientific publications PubMed/ Medline, ISI Web of Science, Scopus, Cochrane, Google Scholar, and EMBASE up to July 2023. They used keywords like “sweetened drink” or “sweetened beverage”, “processed food”, “junk food”, “fried food”, “instant food”, and several others, along with keywords for mental health conditions and concepts such as “sleep disorders”, “mental health”, “depression”, “stress”, “happiness”, and “well-being”. They sought scientific publications reporting the associations between junk food consumption and mental health.

The search initially returned 1745 records. However, after removing duplicates, publications that were not relevant to the study goal, and studies on children (the authors were interested in adults), the number of studies was reduced to 17. They involved 159,885 participants.

Junk food consumption is associated with a 15% increased risk of having depression

Analysis of these studies showed that all of them reported at least one link between junk food consumption and adverse psychological outcomes. Integration of results of 4 studies on stress suggested that individuals consuming high levels of junk food have 33% higher odds of being under increased stress. Junk food consumption was associated with 15% higher odds of mental health issues in general.

An analysis of studies looking into links with depression indicated that frequent junk food consumption was associated with 15% increased odds of depression (compared to individuals not consuming junk food or consuming it much less).

However, findings reported by various studies tended to be quite diverse. For example, studies looking into the links between depression and junk food consumption reported increased odds of depression for individuals consuming lots of junk food, ranging from 3% higher to 77% higher. Similarly, increased odds reported by cross-sectional studies looking into links between junk food and stress ranged from 5% higher to 73% higher (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Procedure and findings (Ejtahed, 2024)

Conclusion

The study results indicate that frequent consumption of junk food, i.e., foods high in fat and sugar content and low in nutritive value, is associated with poorer mental health. This might mean that a diet based on junk food adversely affects mental health, but it could also mean that individuals in poor mental health, dealing with depression and increased stress, are less able to provide themselves with a healthy diet.

Future studies are needed to explore the mechanisms behind this relationship. However, the existence of this link indicates that interventions aimed at supporting mental health or treating mental health issues need to consider their patients’ nutrition habits and nutrition options.

The paper “Association between junk food consumption and mental health problems in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis” was authored by Hanieh-Sadat Ejtahed, Parham Mardi, Bahram Hejrani, Fatemeh Sadat Mahdavi, Behnaz Ghoreshi, Kimia Gohari, Motahar Heidari-Beni, and Mostafa Qorbani.

References

Ejtahed, H.-S., Mardi, P., Hejrani, B., Mahdavi, F. S., Ghoreshi, B., Gohari, K., Heidari-Beni, M., & Qorbani, M. (2024). Association between junk food consumption and mental health problems in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 24(1), 438. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05889-8

Gearhardt, A. N., Bueno, N. B., DiFeliceantonio, A. G., Roberto, C. A., Jiménez-Murcia, S., & Fernandez-Aranda, F. (2023). Social, clinical, and policy implications of ultra-processed food addiction. BMJ, e075354. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-075354

Harris, J. L., & Graff, S. K. (2012). Protecting Young People From Junk Food Advertising: Implications of Psychological Research for First Amendment Law. American Journal of Public Health, 102(2), 214–222. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300328

Hedrih, V. (2023). Scientists Propose that Ultra-Processed Foods be Classified as Addictive Substances. CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/scientists-propose-that-ultra-processed-foods-be-classified-as-addictive-substances/

Hedrih, V. (2024a). What are Ultra-Processed Foods Doing to Your Mental and Physical Health? CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/what-are-ultra-processed-foods-doing-to-your-mental-and-physical-health/

Hedrih, V. (2024b, February 19). Consuming Fat and Sugar (At The Same Time) Promotes Overeating, Study Finds. CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/16563-2/

Hedrih, V. (2025). Does Eating Lots of Junk Food Lead to Poor Mental Health? CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/does-eating-lots-of-junk-food-lead-to-poor-mental-health/

Ikemoto, S., Takahashi, M., Tsunoda, N., Maruyama, K., Itakura, H., & Ezaki, O. (1996). High-fat diet-induced hyperglycemia and obesity in mice: Differential effects of dietary oils. Metabolism, 45(12), 1539–1546. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0026-0495(96)90185-7

McDougle, M., de Araujo, A., Singh, A., Yang, M., Braga, I., Paille, V., Mendez-Hernandez, R., Vergara, M., Woodie, L. N., Gour, A., Sharma, A., Urs, N., Warren, B., & de Lartigue, G. (2024). Separate gut-brain circuits for fat and sugar reinforcement combine to promote overeating. Cell Metabolism. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2023.12.014

Rajveer, B., & Monika, O. (2012). Junk Food: Impact on health. Journal of Drug Delivery & Therapeutics, 2(3), 67–73.

Wong, M. C., Mccarthy, C., Fearnbach, N., Yang, S., Shepherd, J., & Heymsfield, S. B. (2022). Emergence of the obesity epidemic: 6-decade visualization with humanoid avatars. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 115(4), 1189–1193. https://doi.org/10.1093/AJCN/NQAC005

Does Eating Lots of Junk Food Lead to Poor Mental Health?

Posted on April 14, 2025June 17, 2025 by CNP Staff

A meta-analysis published in BMC Psychiatry examined the results of 17 studies and found that high junk food consumption is associated with poorer mental health.
Junk food consumption was associated with 15% higher odds of having depression and experiencing stress.
Odds of developing mental health disorders were 16% higher in individuals consuming lots of junk food.

Not all foods and beverages are equally healthy. Some foods are rich in essential nutrients, minerals, fibers, and other ingredients our body needs to function well. These foods generally support our long-term health. Other types of food tend to be rich in ingredients used solely to increase their palatability and to make them more appealing to people. These unhealthy foods often have large quantities of refined sugars added, causing blood sugar spikes and crashes after consumption. They also tend to contain various artificial additives to increase their taste and improve chemical or mechanical properties. These ingredients typically have no nutritional value and are linked to increased risks of health problems (e.g., Huang et al., 2023; Lane et al., 2024).

Junk food

One important category of foods typically considered unhealthy is junk food. Junk food is the name coined in the 1970s to refer to foods that are energy-dense (i.e., high in calories), but have low nutritional value. These foods contain refined sugar, white flour, trans fat, polyunsaturated fat, salt, and numerous food additives. They tend to lack protein, minerals, and fiber (Rajveer & Monika, 2012). A rule of thumb is that if a food item has a long list of ingredients with many names of chemical compounds or artificial ingredients, it is likely junk food.

Junk food is easy to produce (industrially), tastes good, and typically has a long shelf life without requiring refrigeration. Most often, junk food is ultra-processed, meaning it is made mostly or entirely from substances derived from foods and additives with few or no unprocessed components (Monteiro et al., 2018).

Junk food and health

Junk food is made highly palatable by combining high concentrations of easily digestible fats and sugar. When fats and sugars enter the human digestive system, they trigger separate neural pathways linking to reward areas of the brain. When they are digested simultaneously, both pathways are triggered, producing a very strong rewarding experience (Hedrih, 2024; McDougle et al., 2024). This is the likely mechanism behind the extreme pleasure we feel when we eat chocolate, for example.

When fats and sugars enter the human digestive system, they trigger separate neural pathways linking to reward areas of the brain.

Studies have shown that these experiences also promote overeating and may, in time, dysregulate the brain’s food intake mechanism to control how much food a person eats (Hedrih, 2024). This leads to obesity. In studies on rodents, when researchers want to make animals obese, they feed them food rich in easily digestible fats and sugar (Ikemoto et al., 1996). This is called an obesogenic diet.

Junk food, particularly ultra-processed foods, also tends to contain additives, many of which are added to make the food even more palatable and produce effects similar to those found in addictions (Gearhardt et al., 2023; Hedrih, 2023a). Many studies have linked regular consumption of junk food or its main components, such as refined sugar, with increased risk of various adverse health conditions (Hedrih, 2023b; Huang et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024).

Junk food contains additives, many of which are added to make the food even more palatable and produce effects similar to those found in addictions

The current study

Study author Hanieh-Sadat Ejtahed and her colleagues conducted a meta-analytic study to integrate existing scientific findings about the links between junk food consumption and mental health disorders in adults (Ejtahed et al., 2024). They searched multiple databases of scientific publications for studies reporting on this link. The search yielded 17 such studies conducted on data from 159,885 participants.

As studies about junk food often do not use the term junk food, these authors considered a study to be about junk food if it was about one of the following types of foods, beverages, or food/beverage components (see Figure 1):

Sweet drinks: fruit-flavored drinks, sweetened coffee, fruit juice drinks, sugared coffee and tea, energy drinks, cola drinks, beverages, soft drinks, lemonade, and soda.
Sweet snacks: total sugars, added sugars, sweetened desserts, fatty/sweet products, ice cream, chocolate, artificial sweeteners, sweet snacks, dessert, sauces and dressings, candy, patterns of consumption of sweet, high fat and sugary foods, biscuits and pastries, cakes, pie/cookies, and baked goods),
Snacks: Including snacks, sauces/added fats, fast food, fast-food pattern, western diet pattern, snacking and convenience pattern, fried foods, fried potato, crisps, salty snacks, convenience pattern, instant foods), and;
Total junk foods: Different types of junk food are considered together. These were either studies on junk food or studies focusing on multiple categories of junk food.

Figure 1. Junk foods included in Ejtahed et al. (2024)

Junk food consumption is associated with higher mental health symptoms

The results showed that all studies reported at least some associations between mental health symptoms and junk food consumption. However, it sometimes happened that one study found a specific mental health issue to be associated with junk food consumption, but another did not.

Overall, studies indicated that individuals consuming junk food tend to have 15% higher odds of having heightened stress and depression symptoms. Two studies focused on stress showed that individuals consuming junk food had a 31% higher risk of experiencing heightened stress symptoms compared to those not consuming junk food or eating it less.

Results of longitudinal studies, studies that followed groups of participants over time, indicated that individuals consuming junk food regularly have 16% higher odds of developing mental health disorders compared to those who do not eat junk food or eat it less. Frequent consumers of junk food developed depression 30% more often than individuals consuming it less often or not at all (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Junk food is associated with Depression symptoms

Conclusion

Overall, the study showed that individuals consuming high amounts of junk food regularly tend to have poorer mental health compared to those consuming it less often or not at all. In particular, they were somewhat more likely to develop mental health disorders, have heightened depressive symptoms, and experience stress.

The study showed that individuals consuming high amounts of junk food regularly tend to have poorer mental health compared to those consuming it less often or not at all.

The cause of this association remains insufficiently clear. Studies have identified some possible mechanisms through which junk food could affect mental health. These include neuroinflammation and changes in the body’s functioning that result from obesity. However, it also remains possible that mental health problems make it harder for individuals to maintain a healthy diet, leaving them with the easier and, most often, more accessible option, which is junk food.

Note: Mechanisms through which consumption of junk food influences depression and mental health symptoms can be found in NP 150 Parts I and II.

References

Hedrih, V. (2023a). Scientists Propose that Ultra-Processed Foods be Classified as Addictive Substances. CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/scientists-propose-that-ultra-processed-foods-be-classified-as-addictive-substances/

Hedrih, V. (2023b, June 6). Health Consequences of High Sugar Consumption. CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/health-consequences-of-high-sugar-consumption/

Hedrih, V. (2024, February 19). Consuming Fat and Sugar (At The Same Time) Promotes Overeating, Study Finds. CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/16563-2/

Huang, Y., Chen, Z., Chen, B., Li, J., Yuan, X., Li, J., Wang, W., Dai, T., Chen, H., Wang, Y., Wang, R., Wang, P., Guo, J., Dong, Q., Liu, C., Wei, Q., Cao, D., & Liu, L. (2023). Dietary sugar consumption and health: Umbrella review. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 381, e071609. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2022-071609

Lane, M. M., Gamage, E., Du, S., Ashtree, D. N., McGuinness, A. J., Gauci, S., Baker, P., Lawrence, M., Rebholz, C. M., Srour, B., Touvier, M., Jacka, F. N., O’Neil, A., Segasby, T., & Marx, W. (2024). Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes: Umbrella review of epidemiological meta-analyses. BMJ, e077310. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-077310

Monteiro, C. A., Cannon, G., Moubarac, J.-C., Levy, R. B., Louzada, M. L. C., & Jaime, P. C. (2018). The UN Decade of Nutrition, the NOVA food classification and the trouble with ultra-processing. Public Health Nutrition, 21(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017000234

Rajveer, B., & Monika, O. (2012). Junk Food: Impact on health. Journal of Drug Delivery & Therapeutics, 2(3), 67–73.

Zhang, L., Sun, H., Liu, Z., Yang, J., & Liu, Y. (2024). Association between dietary sugar intake and depression in US adults: A cross-sectional study using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2018. BMC Psychiatry, 24(110), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05531-7

Social Isolation is Associated With Altered Neural Reactivity to the Sight of Food

Posted on August 20, 2024August 20, 2024 by CNP Staff

A study of women published in JAMA Network Open found that women with higher perceived social isolation tend to have altered neural activity in response to pictures of food
This altered activity was detected in brain regions responsible for appetite and food-related motivation and included the default mode, executive control, and visual attention networks
More socially isolated women also tended to be more overweight and obese, to have lower diet quality, more maladaptive eating behaviors, and poorer mental health

Sometimes, eating something will make us feel better when we are sad or experience strong negative emotions. Some foods are so tasty that eating them feels like a rewarding experience. People associate some foods with positive memories, so eating them will improve their emotional state by invoking them. But what happens when negative emotions are persistent? For example, when we generally feel lonely?

Social isolation
Perceived social isolation, also known as loneliness, is one’s subjective appraisal of his/her available social relationships and community support (Zhang et al., 2024). Loneliness is entirely subjective and does not necessarily rely on how many social connections one objectively has. A person can feel lonely while being surrounded by people.

Loneliness is entirely subjective and does not necessarily rely on how many social connections one objectively has.

Loneliness is not a pleasant feeling. Feeling lonely adversely impacts our well-being. However, studies indicate that loneliness might have a broader adverse impact on our health. Lonely individuals seem to be at an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, cognitive decline, and unhealthy eating behaviors (Zhang et al., 2024), but also dying of cancer (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2003; Park et al., 2020). Some authors suggest that health risks created by loneliness are on par with those created by chronic high blood pressure, obesity, or smoking (Singer, 2018).

However, it should be noted that these observations are just associations. While loneliness may lead to these adverse health effects, health problems can make socialization difficult or impossible, creating an association with loneliness.

Social isolation and eating behaviors
Loneliness may increase the risk of obesity. It may also worsen eating behaviors and eating disorders (Zhang et al., 2024). Previous studies established that negative emotions make individuals more likely to overeat (Zeeck et al., 2011). When intense emotions overwhelm an individual’s capacity to self-regulate their own emotional well-being, binge eating behaviors may emerge as a coping mechanism.

Loneliness may increase the risk of obesity. It may also worsen eating behaviors and eating disorders.

There is both scientific and anecdotal evidence of the phenomenon of being “hangry,” i.e., becoming angry while hungry (Hedrih, 2023; Swami et al., 2022). A similar link may exist between loneliness and hunger as well.

The current study
Study author Xiaobei Zhang and his colleagues note that there is emerging evidence that the brains of individuals experiencing chronic loneliness undergo functional changes that may contribute to obesity, altered eating behaviors, and associated psychological symptoms. They wanted to explore the links between loneliness and the brain’s responses to the sight of food better.

These authors hypothesized that several brain networks will show increased activation in lonely individuals when viewing foods. The size of this increase would likely be higher in obese individuals who already have altered eating behaviors and worsened mental health. These authors also hypothesized that reactions would be particularly strong to sweet foods, given their highly rewarding nature.

The study participants were 93 women of reproductive age from Los Angeles, California. Their average age was 25, and they ranged between 18 and 50. The study authors recruited them through advertisements.

The study authors took participants’ weight and height measurements (to calculate body mass index) and estimated their body composition. Participants provided data on their diet style and quality (the UCLA Diet Checklist and the Healthy Eating Index), age, marital status, and socioeconomic status. They completed an assessment of perceived social isolation (the Perceived Isolation Scale). Based on this assessment, the study authors divided participants into two groups – the high-isolation group and the low-isolation group.

Aside from this, participants completed assessments of food craving (the General Food Craving Questionnaire), eating behaviors (the Reward-based Eating Drive, the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire), food addiction (the Yale Food Addiction Scale), resilience (the Connor-Davidson Resilience scale), anxiety and depression symptoms (the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale), and affect (the Positive Affect – Negative Affect Schedule). Participants also underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while viewing a slideshow with pictures of different types of food – unhealthy savory, unhealthy sweet, healthy savory, healthy sweet, and non-food images (i.e., pixelated images created from food pictures to serve as controls) (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Study Procedure (Zhang et al., 2024)

Lonely individuals had higher fat mass percentage, ate lower quality diets, and had worse mental health
Results showed that the high loneliness group of participants tended to have higher fat mass percentage and ate diets of lower quality. They showed more maladaptive eating behaviors (cravings, reward-based eating, uncontrolled eating, and food addiction scores) and more anxiety and depression symptoms. They also tended to have lower psychological resilience.

The high loneliness group of participants tended to have a higher fat mass percentage and eat lower-quality diets.

Lonely individuals tended to have altered brain reactivity to food pictures
Participants in the high social isolation group also tended to have altered brain reactivity to the pictures of food in regions of the brain belonging to the default mode, executive control, and visual attention networks compared to the low social isolation group (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Study results (Zhang et al., 2024)

The default mode network is a brain network active during rest and involved in self-referential thoughts, mind-wandering, and daydreaming. The executive control network is responsible for high-level cognitive functions such as decision-making, problem-solving, and maintaining attention to tasks. The visual attention network directs attention to visual stimuli, enabling the processing and prioritization of visual information in the environment.

Neural responses to sweet foods were associated with altered eating behaviors and psychological symptoms. Statistical analysis showed that these altered brain responses may mediate the relationship between loneliness and maladaptive eating behaviors, increased body fat composition, and diminished positive emotions.

The study confirmed the link between social isolation and obesity.

Conclusions
The study confirmed the link between social isolation and obesity. It identified altered brain responses to the sight of food in women who reported higher feelings of loneliness. These findings underscore the need for overweight and obesity treatments to take into account the whole psychological and social situation of an individual rather than focusing on eating behaviors alone.

The paper “Social Isolation, Brain Food Cue Processing, Eating Behaviors, and Mental Health Symptoms” was authored by Xiaobei Zhang, Soumya Ravichandran, Gilbert C. Gee, Tien S. Dong, Hiram Beltrán-Sánchez, May C. Wang, Lisa A. Kilpatrick, Jennifer S. Labus, Allison Vaughan, and Arpana Gupta.

References

Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2003). Loneliness and pathways to disease. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 17(1, Supplement), 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-1591(02)00073-9

Hedrih, V. (2023). Food and Mood: Is the Concept of ‘Hangry’ Real? CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/food-and-mood-is-the-concept-of-hangry-real/

Park, C., Majeed, A., Gill, H., Tamura, J., Ho, R. C., Mansur, R. B., Nasri, F., Lee, Y., Rosenblat, J. D., Wong, E., & McIntyre, R. S. (2020). The Effect of Loneliness on Distinct Health Outcomes: A Comprehensive Review and Meta-Analysis. Psychiatry Research, 294, 113514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113514

Singer, C. (2018). Health Effects of Social Isolation and Loneliness. Journal of Aging and Care, 28(1), 4–8.

Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., & Stieger, S. (2022). Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. PLOS ONE, 17(7), e0269629. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0269629

Zeeck, A., Stelzer, N., Linster, H. W., Joos, A., & Hartmann, A. (2011). Emotion and eating in binge eating disorder and obesity. European Eating Disorders Review, 19(5), 426–437. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.1066

Zhang, X., Ravichandran, S., Gee, G. C., Dong, T. S., Beltrán-Sánchez, H., Wang, M. C., Kilpatrick, L. A., Labus, J. S., Vaughan, A., & Gupta, A. (2024). Social Isolation, Brain Food Cue Processing, Eating Behaviors, and Mental Health Symptoms. JAMA Network Open, 7(4), e244855. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.4855

Mediterranean Diet Might Be a Protective Factor for Mental Health in Children

Posted on July 29, 2024July 30, 2024 by CNP Staff

A systematic review published in Nutrition Reviews found that adherence to a Mediterranean diet could be a protective factor for mental health in children
The review included 13 studies, 2 of which were randomized controlled trials, and seven were found to be of high quality
Analyzed studies included 3058 children between 8 and 16 years of age

“You are what you eat,” the old saying goes. It means one must eat good food to stay healthy and fit. This link between eating well and staying healthy is obvious – our body needs specific nutrients to function. If we do not obtain them through food, serious health consequences will follow.

Diet and health

Science has known for centuries that a lack of specific nutrients can lead to serious health conditions. Nutrient deficiency diseases such as anemia (caused by a lack of iron, leading to fatigue, weakness, and pale skin), scurvy (caused by a deficiency of vitamin C, leading to bleeding gums, joint pain, and anemia), pellagra (caused by a deficiency of niacin (vitamin B3), leading to dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia) or hypothyroidism (caused by a deficiency of iodine, leading to fatigue, weight gain, and depression) have been described and well understood for over 100 years.

However, studies in the past several decades revealed much more nuanced links between diet and health. Unlike nutrient deficiency diseases, these new studies link adverse health outcomes to more complex dietary patterns (i.e., patterns involving different foods containing many different nutrients and micronutrients in specific ratios or entire food consumption patterns referred to as diets).

For example, studies report that excessive intake of refined sugars is associated with increased risks of cardiovascular diseases, depression, type 2 diabetes, and even cancer (Hedrih, 2023; Huang et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024). Consumption of ultra-processed foods, i.e., food items created through extensive industrial processing, has also been linked to a wide range of adverse health outcomes ranging from cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases, depression, and anxiety to cancer (Lane et al., 2024) (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Link of ultra-processed food to disease

These studies effectively tell us which foods or dietary patterns to avoid. But all living organisms need to eat if they want to live. So, are there dietary patterns that may protect our health? One such pattern might be the Mediterranean diet.

The Mediterranean diet

The Mediterranean diet is a pattern inspired by the traditional eating habits of people in countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. It emphasizes the consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and olive oil, with a moderate intake of fish and poultry and limited consumption of red meat and sweets. This diet also includes moderate wine consumption, usually with meals.

Studies have shown that this diet is associated with numerous health benefits, including reduced risks of heart disease and diabetes (Salas-Salvadó et al., 2018; The InterAct Consortium, 2011). Adherence to the Mediterranean diet is even associated with a slightly lower risk of several types of cancer and a lower overall risk of dying from cancer (Schwingshackl & Hoffmann, 2016).

The current study

Study author Patricia Camprodon-Boadas and her colleagues wanted to investigate the association between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and mental health outcomes in children and adolescents (Camprodon-Boadas et al., 2024).

These authors note that childhood and adolescence are critical periods in the development of mental illness. Anxiety disorders are the most common mental health issue among children, followed by behavior disorders, mood disorders, and substance use disorders. Girls generally tend to have higher rates of mood and anxiety disorders, while boys are more susceptible to behavior disorders. Drug use disorders are equally common among girls and boys (Camprodon-Boadas et al., 2024). But could this diet be a protective factor against these disorders?

Childhood and adolescence are critical periods in the development of mental illness

These authors conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of research articles in English and Spanish that investigated the links between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and mental health symptoms in children and adolescents.

Their search of several scientific article databases initially yielded 450 articles. However, after the authors removed duplicates and read these articles in detail to examine whether they contained the data they needed, the number of articles fell to 13.

Eight of the studies described in these articles were conducted in Spain, while the remaining five articles came from Iran, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. One study included participants from five different countries. Two of the studies were randomized controlled trials (researchers had participants eat different diets to test their effects), and one study was longitudinal.

The 13 studies included 3058 children between 8 and 16 years of age. The studies used different ways to assess adherence to the Mediterranean diet, but most of them used the Mediterranean Diet Quality Index, a 16-item questionnaire. Study authors found 7 of these studies to be of high quality (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Study Procedure (Camprodon-Boadas et al., 2024)

High adherence to Mediterranean diet was linked to lower odds of ADHD
4 of the 13 studies examined the links between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Their results indicated that children and adolescents with high adherence to the Mediterranean diet had 30% lower odds of suffering from ADHD.

Two studies examined the links between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and impulsivity. 1 of them reported that participants with higher impulsivity tended to have low adherence to a Mediterranean diet, while the other did not find this link. 1 study found no relationship between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and attention capacity

Children and adolescents with high adherence to the Mediterranean diet were less likely to suffer from depression or anxiety

Five studies examined the links between the Mediterranean diet and depressive symptoms. Of these, four found that participants with depressive symptoms showed much lower adherence to the Mediterranean diet. Conversely, participants with high adherence to the Mediterranean diet were less likely to suffer from depression and had fewer depressive symptoms.

Four studies examined the association between the Mediterranean diet and anxiety. 2 of these studies found participants highly adhering to the Mediterranean diet to have fewer anxiety symptoms. In contrast, the other 2 found no such association (see Figure X).

Figure 3. Findings (Camprodon-Boadas et al., 2024)

Conclusion

Overall, the results reported by examined studies were not uniform, but the majority found higher adherence to the Mediterranean diet associated with fewer mental health issues.

The majority found higher adherence to the Mediterranean diet associated with fewer mental health issues

At the moment, it remains insufficiently clear whether it is the Mediterranean diet that reduces the risks of developing mental health issues or the absence of mental health issues that leads to higher adherence to the Mediterranean diet. A possibility exists that adherence to the Mediterranean diet might indeed be a protective factor for the mental health of children and adolescents.

The paper “Mediterranean Diet and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review” was authored by Patricia Camprodon-Boadas, Aitana Gil-Dominguez, Elena De la Serna, Gisela Sugranyes, Iolanda Lazaro, and Immaculada Baeza.

Camprodon-Boadas, P., Gil-Dominguez, A., De La Serna, E., Sugranyes, G., Lázaro, I., & Baeza, I. (2024). Mediterranean Diet and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Nutrition Reviews, nuae053. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuae053

Hedrih, V. (2023, June 6). Health Consequences of High Sugar Consumption. CNP Articles in Nutritional Psychology. https://www.nutritional-psychology.org/health-consequences-of-high-sugar-consumption/

Lane, M. M., Gamage, E., Du, S., Ashtree, D. N., McGuinness, A. J., Gauci, S., Baker, P., Lawrence, M., Rebholz, C. M., Srour, B., Touvier, M., Jacka, F. N., O’Neil, A., Segasby, T., & Marx, W. (2024). Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes: Umbrella review of epidemiological meta-analyses. BMJ, e077310. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-077310

Salas-Salvadó, J., Becerra-Tomás, N., García-Gavilán, J. F., Bulló, M., & Barrubés, L. (2018). Mediterranean Diet and Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: What Do We Know? Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, 61(1), 62–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2018.04.006

Schwingshackl, L., & Hoffmann, G. (2016). Does a Mediterranean-Type Diet Reduce Cancer Risk? Current Nutrition Reports, 5(1), 9–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-015-0141-7

The InterAct Consortium. (2011). Mediterranean Diet and Type 2 Diabetes Risk in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) Study. Diabetes Care, 34(9), 1913–1918. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc11-0891

Blue Zones and Their Role in the Diet-Mental Health Relationship (DMHR): A Three-Part Series Exploring the Interplay of Diet, Longevity, and Mental Health.

Posted on August 12, 2022January 10, 2024 by CNP Staff

Editor’s Note: We begin our three-part series with an overview of the nine common characteristics that underlie Blue Zones. The second article will dive deeper into how diet and mental health may impact longevity.

In 2016, to explore the secrets to longevity, National Geographic Fellow and American Author Dan Buettner located five geographic locations on Earth yielding higher-than-average populations of people living beyond 100 years old, referred to as “centenarians.” The locations are Ikaria, Greece; Okinawa, Japan; Sardinia, Italy; Loma Linda, California; and Nicoya, Costa Rica (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). Buettner coined the term “Blue Zones,” defining them as communities that produce individuals who are ten times more likely to reach age 100 than the average

US citizen and prompting questions about what contributes to such extraordinarily healthful aging (Buettner & Skemp, 2016).

Blue zones are communities that produce individuals who are ten times more likely to reach age 100 than the average US citizen.

With the help of demographers, scientists, and anthropologists, Buettner identified nine common lifestyle characteristics among the Blue Zones that impact longevity: the Power 9 (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). These include: move naturally, purpose, downshift, 80% rule, plant slant, wine at 5, right tribe, loved ones first, and belong (Figure 1). His idea is that if genes dictate about 20% of life expectancy and lifestyle governs about 80%, the Power 9 can provide a blueprint for creating healthier populations and a higher human life expectancy worldwide (Herskind et al., 1996).

Figure 1. Power 9 Blue Zone Characteristics

Power 9 characteristics can be sorted under four umbrella components — move naturally, right outlook, eat wisely, and connect.

Component 1: Move Naturally

Rather than engaging in the exercise habits commonly seen in Western culture (e.g., high-intensity cardio, weight-lifting, marathon running), Blue Zone residents live in environments that foster daily, mindless movement. For example, Sardinians, often employed as shepherds, walk around five miles a day or more in tending to their animals (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). For others in Blue Zone communities, this routine movement may look like tending to a garden or walking across town for social commitments.

Rather than engaging in the exercise habits commonly seen in Western culture, Blue Zone residents live in environments that foster daily, mindless movement.

This movement leads to positive mental and physical outcomes. For instance, a 2021 study concluded that the more time Sardinians spent gardening, the better physical health they reported (Ruiu et al., 2022). The takeaway? Exceptionally long-living individuals move their bodies daily and in intuitive ways.

Component 2: Right Outlook

Purpose

While the idea of “finding purpose” may hold varying names — the Okinawans call it “Ikiagi” and the Nicoyans call it “plan de Vida,” for example — the concept serves as a central theme within Blue Zones (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). Both “Ikiaki” and “plan de Vida” translate loosely to “why I wake up in the morning,” implying recognition of a life purpose. Buettner and Skemp (2016) found that having a life purpose may be worth up to seven years of additional life expectancy, which was supported by an association between a stronger purpose in life and decreased mortality found in a later study (Alimujiang et al., 2019). The discovery of such an individualized purpose appears to play a central role in the longevity of Blue Zone residents.

Both “Ikiaki” and “plan de Vida” translate loosely to “why I wake up in the morning,” implying recognition of a life purpose.

Downshift

Downshift explores the idea of routines meant to release stress. The experience of stress is inevitable, and Blue Zone residents have created ways — unique to their religious ties and geographic regions — to release stress. For example, Adventists in Loma Linda pray, Okinawans take moments to remember their ancestors, and Ikiarians nap (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). In creating rituals to eliminate distress, bitcoin mixer individuals in Blue Zone regions defend themselves against stress-related illnesses such as coronary heart disease, cancer, and respiratory disorders (Salleh, 2008). By prioritizing outlets of escape from ambient stressors through downshift, Blue Zone residents create a culture supportive of a greater-than-average life expectancy.

Downshift explores the idea of routines meant to release stress.

Component 3: Eat Wisely

80% Rule

Rather than eating until they feel they can’t take another bite, Blue Zone residents follow an 80-20 rule. This mantra, Hara Hachi Bu, created by Okinawans 2,500 years ago, encourages individuals to stop eating when they are 80% full (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). A consistent practice of this rule leads this population to consume fewer calories and consequently have lower energy intake (Fukkoshi et al., 2015).

The Okinawan mantra Hara Hachi Bu encourages individuals to stop eating when they are 80% full.

This practice begs individuals to practice mindfulness, as recognizing one’s satiety requires an understanding of internal cues. Blue Zone residents are encouraged to chew slowly, take deep breaths, and be present in their bodies to honor their hunger cues and avoid overeating. As stated above, by not overeating, these populations subsequently experience a lower input of calories and collateral energy, which is associated with human longevity (Willcox et al., 2006).

In eating until 80% full, Blue Zone residents are pushed to chew slowly, take deep breaths, and be present in their bodies to honor their hunger cues and avoid overeating.

Wine at 5

All Blue Zone populations, excluding Adventists in Loma Linda, regularly and moderately consume alcohol (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). The frequent alcohol of choice is wine, specifically, Cannonau, a red wine native to Sardinia (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). Red wine contains large amounts of antioxidants — polyphenols — which stabilize free radicals and counteract oxidative stress. The latter is a known contributor to detrimental neurological conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and depression, all of which contribute to increased mortality (Pizzino et al., 2017). Consuming quality red wine regularly and socially provides an influx of antioxidants to help defend against such diseases, likely positively contributing to longer-than-average life spans among Blue Zone residents.

Red wine contains large amounts of antioxidants — polyphenols — which stabilize free radicals and counteract oxidative stress.

Plant Slant

Most centenarian diets are plant-based, with a significant intake of vegetables, beans, and whole grains. Ikarians, largely due to their proximity to the Mediterranean, eat a Mediterranean diet filled with lots of fruit, olive oil, vegetables, and plant-based proteins such as nuts, beans, and seeds. Adventists take their dietary habits from the Bible and consume a vegan diet full of legumes, leafy vegetables, and nuts. Nicoyans consume little to no processed foods and emphasize antioxidant-rich fruits in their diet (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). Though their diets vary slightly based upon location and community values, all Blue Zone diets have a plant-based theme associated with longevity (Norman & Klaus, 2020).

Component 4: Connect

Right Tribe

The idea of “finding your people” is one that lots of individuals strive to achieve. Maintaining satisfying social ties with friends and family and living a socially-oriented lifestyle can decrease feelings of loneliness and contribute to beneficial mental health outcomes (Hitchcott et al., 2017). In Okinawa, children aged five are put into moai, committed social networks that exist indefinitely (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). These social circles provide individuals with the comfort of knowing they will always have support, whether financial, emotional, or otherwise. Nurturing healthy relationships like those in moai substantially increases one’s likelihood of longevity, explaining why this effort is so important for Blue Zone folk (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010).

Loved Ones First

Another central theme in Blue Zone territories is keeping family close. Blue Zone residents, whether living near family or in intergenerational homes, emphasize investing in their families (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). In collectivist cultures such as Japan, harmonious relationships with family play a role in supporting psychological well-being (Kitayama et al., 2020). The same goes for the strong social support from family members in Italy; it is associated with few depressive symptoms later in life (Carpiniello et al., 1989). Living with aging parents and grandparents in intergenerational homes also lowers children’s disease and mortality rates (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). Prioritizing loved ones plays a role in longevity, as committing to a partner, commonly seen throughout Blue Zones, can add up to three years of life expectancy (Buettner & Skemp, 2016).

Prioritizing loved ones plays a role in longevity and can add up to three years of life expectancy.

Belong

Most centenarians in Blue Zone communities belong to a faith-based community, and all but five of 263 Blue Zone centenarians interviewed by Buettner belonged to a specific one (Buettner & Skemp, 2016). Denomination does not interfere with the impact of belonging to such a community, as religiosity is a protective factor for aging (Krause, 2003). Attending a faith-based service four times per month can add anywhere between four and 14 years of life expectancy. Older adults who gain a sense of meaning in life from religion also tend to report higher levels of mental health benefits such as life satisfaction, self-esteem, and optimism (Buettner & Skemp, 2016; Krause, 2003). Overall, the longest-living communities tend to incline toward faith-based groups.

Older adults who gain a sense of meaning from religion also report higher levels of mental health benefits such as life satisfaction, self-esteem, and optimism.

What now?

The association of mental health and longevity, combined with the knowledge that there are pockets of the world producing abnormal amounts of centenarians, urges the exploration of what mental health efforts Blue Zone residents are implementing into their daily lives that may be impacting mortality.

The Power 9 provides distinct factors central to Blue Zone communities. Physical movement, mental health, diet, and social connection appear critical to uncovering the secrets of longevity and well-being. Yet many questions remain to be answered. How much influence does one factor have over the others? What role does food, specifically, play in the mental health of Blue Zone residents?

Physical movement, mental health, diet, and social connection appear critical to uncovering the secrets of longevity and well-being.

More research on Blue Zones is expected in the upcoming years. As our understanding of the diet-mental health relationship (DMHR) evolves and becomes more central to various healthcare settings, Blue Zones may provide a unique opportunity to boost healthy living.

The interplay of diet and mental health and its impact on longevity will be further explored in the context of Blue Zone regions in two upcoming articles.

References

Alimujiang, A., Wiensch, A., Boss, J. (2019) Association between life purpose and mortality among US adults older than 50 years. JAMA Network Open, 2(5). doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.4270

Buettner, D., Skemp, S. (2016). Blue zones: lessons from the world’s longest lived. Sage Journals, 10(5), 318-321. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827616637066

Carpiniello B., Carta M. G., Rudas N. (1989). Depression among elderly people. A psychosocial study of urban and rural populations. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 80(5), 445–450. Doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1989.tb03004.x

Fastame, M.C., Hitchcott, P.K., Mulas, I., Ruiu, M., Penna, M.P. (2018). Resilience in elders of the Sardinian blue zone: an explorative study. Behavioral Sciences, 8(3), doi: 10.3390/bs8030030

Fukkoshi, Y., Akamatsu, R., Shimpo, M. (2016). The relationship of eating until 80% full with types and energy values of food consumed. Science Direct, 17, 153-156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.03.001

Herskind, A.M., McGue, M., Holm, N.V., Sorensen, T.I.A., Harvald, B., Vaupel, J.W. (1996). The heritability of human longevity: a population-based study of 2872 Danish twin pairs born 1870-1900. Human Gent, 97(3), 319-323. DOI: 10.1007/BF02185763

Hitchcott, P.K., Fastame, M.C., Ferrai, J., Penna, M.P. (2017). Psychological well-being in Italian families: an exploratory approach to the study of mental health across the adult life span in blue zone. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 13(3), 441-454. Doi:

10.5964/ejop.v13i3.1416

Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T.B., Layton, J.B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. Plos Medicine, 7(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316

Kitayama S., Markus H. R., Kurokawa M. (2000). Culture, emotion, and well-being: good feelings in Japan and the United States. Cognition and Emotion, 14(1), 93–124. Doi: 10.1080/026999300379003

Krause, N. (2003). Religious meaning and subjective well-being in late life. The Journals of Gerontology, 58(3), S160-S170. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.3.S160

Norman, K., Klaus, S. (2020). Veganism, aging and longevity: new insight into old concepts. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 23(2), 145-150. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000625

Pizzino, G., Irrera, N., Cucinotta, M., Pallio, G., Mannino, F., Arcoraci, V., Squadrito, F., Altavilla, D., Bitto, A. (2017). Oxidative stress: harms and benefits for human health. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2017: 8416763. salgen.it doi: 10.1155/2017/8416763

Ruiu, M., Carta, V., Deiana, C., Fastame, M.C. (2022). Is the Sardinian blue zone the new Shangri-la for mental health? Evidence on depressive symptoms and its correlates in late adult life span. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 34, 1315-1322.https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-021-02068-7

Salleh, M.R. (2008). Life event, stress, and illness. The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences, 15(4), 9-18.

Willcox, D.C., Willcox, B.J., Todoriki, H., Curb, J.D., Suzuki, M. (2006). Caloric restriction and human longevity: what we can learn from the Okinawans. Biogerontology, 7, 173-177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10522-006-9008-z

Refined Grains May Increase the Risk for Cardiovascular Diseases and Affect the Diet-Mental Health Relationship

Posted on August 1, 2022November 8, 2023 by CNP Staff

As technological advances revolutionized agriculture and food science, foods are now processed at industrial scales and supplied in abundance to meet global demands. However, changes in food production have led to the creation of items that are now consumed in excess, particularly products with refined grains and added sugars.

Changes in food production have led to the creation of items that are now consumed in excess, particularly products with refined grains and added sugars.

Previous studies have reported a positive association between eating refined grains and greater risk factors for cardiovascular diseases (CVD) among U.S. adults (Howard & Wylie-Rosett, 2002; Yang et al., 2014; Dehghan et al., 2017). Both refined and whole grains contribute significantly to the global daily caloric intake (Kearney, 2010).

Being that grains are pervasive in the global diet, it is critical to understand their impact on physical health and the diet-mental health relationship. Compared to whole grains, which have been associated with reduced risks of CVDs and mortality (Ye, et al., 2012), refined grains and their health outcomes have yet to be fully understood.

Being that grains are pervasive in the global diet, it is critical to understand their impact on physical health and the diet-mental health relationship.

To bridge this knowledge gap, Swaminathan et al. (2021) led a prospective cohort study (PCS) to examine the relationship between the consumption of grains and CVDs. A PCS design is longitudinal and evaluates participants that are similar but differ in one key aspect for comparison of the same outcome. Utilizing data in their analysis from 2003 to 2019 from the Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study, researchers compared the diets of participants from low-, middle-, and high-income countries in an effort to observe how different intake levels of refined grains, whole grains, and white rice are associated with CVDs and mortality (Corsi et al., 2013; Swaminathan et al., 2021). This study did not compare the relationship between CVDs and no, or minimal, grain consumption (as in a ketogenic or low-carbohydrate diet).

Refined grains are defined as products modified to have low fiber content like white bread, dessert/pastries, processed noodles/pasta, and breakfast cereals.

White rice was stratified as a group separate from refined and whole grains as 60% of the participants in the PURE dataset were from Asia, where white rice is an integral part of their diet. Furthermore, refined grains are defined as products modified to have low fiber content like white bread, dessert/pastries, processed noodles/pasta, and breakfast cereals. In contrast, whole grains are foods made with intact grains like oats and whole wheat, which have higher fiber content.

The authors found that a higher dietary intake of refined grains in countries like China and in South East Asia is significantly associated with higher risks of mortality, major CVDs, and comorbidities such as high blood pressure, myocardial infarction, strokes, and heart failure (Figure 1). This relationship was not observed in regions of South Asia where white rice constitutes the highest grain intake or where whole grain is the staple, as in Africa. Particularly for diets comprised largely of white rice, there is less concern about high intake as the countries whose individuals commonly eat white rice do so at controllable levels with their meals as it is customary to pair it with other protein- or vegetable-based dishes.

Figure 1. Eating high amounts of refined grains is significantly associated with greater risks for mortality and developing cardiovascular diseases. This relationship was not found for whole-grain foods like oatmeal and wheat bread.

A higher dietary intake of refined grains in countries like China and in South East Asia is significantly associated with higher risks of mortality, major CVDs, and comorbidities such as high blood pressure, myocardial infarction, strokes, and heart failure.

In their discussion, the authors hypothesized that this outcome is a direct result of the production process of refined grains, which makes their sugar content more easily absorbed into the bloodstream. As a result, this elevates insulin levels and causes blood glucose to decrease, ultimately tricking the brain into thinking it is still hungry and promoting feeding behaviors that lead to overeating, obesity, and CVDs. While the implications of these results on cardiovascular health and the ways that diet can affect our physical (and therefore psychological) well-being demand further research, Swaminathan et al. shed light agoradesign.it on the importance of choosing a balanced diet to maintain physical and dietary health.

Processed refined grains ultimately trick the brain into thinking it is still hungry and promote feeding behaviors that lead to overeating, obesity, and CVDs.

Find these and more studies showing how the dietary intake of sugar and processed foods affect mood, brain, and behavior in the Nutritional Psychology Research Library (NPRL). You can also sign up for the CNP Newsletter to stay informed!

References

Corsi, D. J., Subramanian, S. V., Chow, C. K., McKee, M., Chifamba, J., Dagenais, G., Diaz, R., Iqbal, R., Kelishadi, R., Kruger, A., Lanas, F., López-Jaramilo, P., Mony, P., Mohan, V., Avezum, A., Oguz, A., Rahman, M. O., Rosengren, A., Szuba, A., Li, W., … Yusuf, S. (2013). Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study: Baseline characteristics of the household sample and comparative analyses with national data in 17 countries. American heart journal, 166(4), 636–646.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2013.04.019

Dehghan, M., Mente, A., Zhang, X., Swaminathan, S., Li, W., Mohan, V., Iqbal, R., Kumar, R., Wentzel-Viljoen, E., Rosengren, A., Amma, L. I., Avezum, A., Chifamba, J., Diaz, R., Khatib, R., Lear, S., Lopez-Jaramillo, P., Liu, X., Gupta, R., Mohammadifard, N., … Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study investigators (2017). Associations of fats and carbohydrate intake with cardiovascular disease and mortality in 18 countries from five continents (PURE): a prospective cohort study. Lancet (London, England), 390(10107), 2050–2062. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32252-3

Howard, B. V., & Wylie-Rosett, J. (2002). Sugar and cardiovascular disease: A statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Nutrition of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism of the American Heart Association. Circulation, 106(4), 523–527. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.0000019552.77778.04

Kearney J. (2010). Food consumption trends and drivers. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 365(1554), 2793–2807. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0149

Swaminathan, S., Dehghan, M., Raj, J. M., Thomas, T., Rangarajan, S., Jenkins, D., Mony, P., Mohan, V., Lear, S. A., Avezum, A., Lopez-Jaramillo, P., Rosengren, A., Lanas, F., AlHabib, K. F., Dans, A., Keskinler, M. V., Puoane, T., Soman, B., Wei, L., Zatonska, K., … Yusuf, S. (2021). Associations of cereal grains intake with cardiovascular disease and mortality across 21 countries in Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology study: prospective cohort study. BMJ cipf-es.org (Clinical research ed.), 372, m4948. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m4948

Yang, Q., Zhang, Z., Gregg, E. W., Flanders, W. D., Merritt, R., & Hu, F. B. (2014). Added sugar intake and cardiovascular diseases mortality among US adults. JAMA internal medicine, 174(4), 516–524. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13563

Ye, E. Q., Chacko, S. A., Chou, E. L., Kugizaki, M., & Liu, S. (2012). Greater whole-grain intake is associated with lower risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and weight gain. The Journal of nutrition, 142(7), 1304–1313. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.155325

Are You What Your Gut-Microbiome Wants You To Eat?

Posted on June 17, 2025June 17, 2025 by CNP Staff

We’ve all heard the saying “you are what you eat,” but new microbiome research is shedding light on this old adage, with a more modern-day update being, “you are what your gut-microbiome wants you to eat.” Let’s look at why this is the case.

First, we know that our food choices significantly impact our physical and mental health. As far back as the 1800s and 1900s, scientists hypothesized an apparent correlation between our food intake and the subsequent effects on appetite, body image, and brain function (Tzameli, 2013).

Is Your Gut Microbiome Telling You What To Eat?

Though biomedical research has already established the endocrine responses that regulate hunger and satiety in the gut-brain axis signaling, little attention has been paid to the mechanisms that influence an individual’s choice of food and nutrition.

Microorganisms that live in our gut may influence what we eat!

A growing body of evidence indicates that our gut microbiome may be one of the factors influencing our food choices. From Nutritional Psychology conceptualization, we are beginning to understand that eating behavior and food preferences are dependent on many aspects of the diet-mental health relationship (DMHR), such as our psychosocial environment, interoceptive experiences, sensory perception, cognitive processes, and psychological state. However, emerging research in the Microbiota-Gut Brain Axis (MGBA) suggests that the microorganisms residing within our gut may also influence what we eat. Therefore, the classic expression, “you are what you eat,” may soon be reframed as “you are [also] what your microbiome wants you to eat.”

A feedback loop between our gut microbiome, brain, and food choices

To explore the influence of the gut microbiome on diet selection behavior, Trevelline and Kohl conducted an experiment in 2022 to study the influence of gut microbes on the diet selection behaviors in mice.

The classic expression, “you are what you eat,” may soon be reframed as “you are [also] what your microbiome wants you to eat.”

To achieve this, intestinal microbiota from three “donor” mouse species, each with distinct foraging behavior, were transplanted into germ-free “host” mice to colonize their intestinal tracts.

Following that, donor germ-free mice were randomly divided into three treatment groups, each based on the donor species:

A carnivore (i.e., predatory-based)
An herbivore (i.e., plant-based)
An omnivore (i.e., inclusive-based)

The mice were then given a choice between a low protein-carbohydrate (LPC) diet and a high protein-carbohydrate (HPC) diet, and their diet preferences were tracked for 11 days. To assess the impact of the donor microbiome on host diet selection behavior, the researchers compared the microbiomes of mice in three treatment groups: predatory (carnivores), inclusive (omnivores), and plant-based (herbivores) (Fig 1A).

Figure 1A. Experimental design to assess host diet selection behaviors across different microbiomes. From Trevelline and Kohl, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2022.

Strikingly, the authors discovered that when mice have given a choice of selected diets varying in macronutrient composition, each microbiome had a distinct effect on food choice behavior (Fig 1B). For example, host mice that received microbiota from herbivorous donors voluntarily ate fewer carbohydrates, evidenced by a higher protein:carbohydrate (P:C) ratio diet intake. On the other hand, omnivore and carnivore treatment groups chose a lower P:C ratio diet intake.

Given that these host mice had no microbiome prior to transplantation, the change in diet selection behavior is evidence of the microbiome influencing food choice (Alcock, 2014). Moreover, through an in-depth analysis of blood and fecal samples, the authors discovered the microbial release of essential amino acids (EAAs) from the gut microbiome of host mice, including tryptophan. Tryptophan is an important food choice driver because it is a precursor to serotonin, the happiness hormone that has been shown to regulate feeding behavior, metabolism, and diet selection (Harrold, 2012; Cryan, 2019; Kaur & Bose, 2019; Yabut, 2019; Gao, 2020; Trevelline & Kohl, 2022). Together, these findings show that the gut microbiome can influence host diet selection behavior by mediating the availability of EAAs.

The gut microbiome can influence host diet selection behavior by mediating the availability of Essential Amino Acids (EAAs)

Finally, the findings discussed here are of great interest to Nutritional Psychology. Together with other studies, they show us that what we eat can be influenced by our microbiota’s ‘bottom up’ connection. And in turn, this connection affects our food choices and dietary intake, which cycles back to influence our microbiota.

Figure 1B. Gut microbiome of donor mice altering feeding choices in host mice.

This reciprocal feedback loop is partly caused by the gut microbiome’s ability to synthesize EAAs, which interact with the gut-brain axis and, in turn, influence dietary habits. Depending on the food choices made, the body’s response to those choices can be beneficial or detrimental. Therefore, increasing awareness of the factors influencing dietary intake may help us to impact both our physical and mental health positively.

References

Alcock, J., Maley, C. C., & Aktipis, C. A. (2014). Is eating behavior manipulated by the gastrointestinal microbiota? Evolutionary pressures and potential mechanisms. BioEssays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology, 36(10), 940–949. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201400071

Cryan, J. F., O’Riordan, K. J., Cowan, C., Sandhu, K. V., Bastiaanssen, T., Boehme, M., Codagnone, M. G., Cussotto, S., Fulling, C., Golubeva, A. V., Guzzetta, K. E., Jaggar, M., Long-Smith, C. M., Lyte, J. M., Martin, J. A., Molinero-Perez, A., Moloney, G., Morelli, E., Morillas, E., O’Connor, R., … Dinan, T. G. (2019). The microbiota-gut-brain axis. Physiological reviews, 99(4), 1877–2013. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00018.2018

Gao, K., Mu, C. L., Farzi, A., & Zhu, W. Y. (2020). Tryptophan metabolism: A link between the gut microbiota and brain. Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.), 11(3), 709–723. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmz127

Harrold, J. A., Dovey, T. M., Blundell, J. E., & Halford, J. C. (2012). CNS regulation of appetite. Neuropharmacology, 63(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.01.007

Kaur, H., Bose, C., & Mande, S. S. (2019). Tryptophan metabolism by gut microbiome and gut-brain-axis: An in silico analysis. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13, 1365. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.01365

Trevelline, B. K., & Kohl, K. D. (2022). The gut microbiome influences host diet selection behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 119(17), e2117537119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2117537119

Tzameli I. (2013). Appetite and the brain: You are what you eat. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM, 24(2), 59–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2012.12.001

Yabut, J. M., Crane, J. D., Green, A. E., Keating, D. J., Khan, W. I., & Steinberg, G. R. (2019). Emerging roles for serotonin in regulating metabolism: New implications for an ancient molecule. Endocrine reviews, 40(4), 1092–1107. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2018-00283

How Nutritional and Social Pathways Influence The Relationship Between Food Insecurity and Mental Well-Being

Posted on November 3, 2021March 14, 2025 by CNP Staff

Food insecurity is a widespread and growing issue in which individuals do not have access to adequate food and food sources that will help them achieve and experience a healthy lifestyle. Many studies are beginning to show that food insecurity impacts individuals’ physical and mental well-being. Researchers strive to better understand the relationship between food insecurity and mental health.

Researchers are striving better to understand the relationship between food insecurity and mental health

A study written by Weaver et al. (2021) investigated two possible explanations to explore the seemingly “black box” that links food insecurity and mental health. Researchers in this study aimed to investigate how food insecurity impacts depression and anxiety through two pathways: nutritional and social. The effect of nutritional pathways on the relationship between food insecurity and mental health was explored by measuring participants’ health markers (such as arm fat area, BMI, and hemoglobin levels). Researchers analyzed the effect of social pathways on food insecurity and mental health by testing social stressors such as not having desirable foods (e.g., meat) or not participating in socially ideal food practices (e.g., sharing foods with neighbors).

This study took place in two distinct locations: a small rural area in Brazil and a medium-sized urban city in Ethiopia, which both reported high levels of food insecurity and depression. Researchers performed community surveys for households in Brazil and Ethiopia from 2015 to 2019, when the economy and food availability fluctuated.

The research was broken down into three phases. The first two phases involved preliminary procedures that established a mutual understanding of the social variables contributing to food insecurity. In the first research phase, researchers interviewed community members to create lists of socially food-related behaviors. The first variable that demonstrates socially food-related behaviors is defined as “CoC,” which represents normal food-related behaviors and food-related behaviors that reveal food insecurity. A second variable that demonstrated social food-related behaviors was food prestige, which measured how regularly individuals could purchase desired foods (e.g., meat, spices, butter, lasagna).

A second variable that demonstrated social food-related behaviors was “food prestige,” which measured how regularly individuals could purchase desired foods (e.g., meats, spices, butter, lasagna)

The second phase of this research consisted of a confirmatory rating exercise. Participants rated food items written on cards on a scale of 1–4, indicating the strength of food insecurity and poverty. This phase confirmed a firm agreement with participants regarding which “CoC” food items demonstrated food insecurity and what foods were prestigious.

The third phase of the research study involved examining the relationship between food insecurity and mental well-being within nutritional and social pathways. Researchers explored the relationship between the social variables (CoC and food prestige scores) and mental well-being variables through Common Mental Disorder Symptoms Scores (CMD). The nutritional variables were explored by testing the relationship between an individual’s arm fat area, body mass index, and hemoglobin level with their CMD scores. Other measured variables were participants’ wealth, household food insecurity, and household demographic data.

As expected, this study reported that food insecurity scores were positively correlated with CMD symptoms. However, when analyzing the effect of the nutritional and social pathways on CMD symptoms, results varied depending on the location. Researchers found that socially food-related behaviors in this study were significant in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, both “CoC” and “food prestige” scores were correlated with CMD symptoms. However, in Brazil, “CoC” and “Food Prestige” scores were not correlated with CMD symptoms.

This study found nutritional deficiencies within both populations; however, the nutritional measures were not correlated with food insecurity in Brazil and Ethiopia. Although no correlations between food insecurity and mental health were explored in the nutritional pathway, researchers state their nutritional assessment was limited to arm fat area, BMI, and hemoglobin. This information allows future researchers to test for other possible nutritional measures that could reveal a relationship between food insecurity and CMD symptoms through other health markers, such as essential nutrients that promote healthy brain function.

Micronutrients that might substantially impact an individual’s mental well-being are B vitamins, folate, and vitamin D

Measuring arm fat area, BMI, and hemoglobin levels may play a significant role in revealing how ‘healthy’ we are. However, these three health markers may not be as directly evident of mental well-being as other nutritional factors. Many vitamins and minerals have been researched to reveal a significant relationship with mental health (see Micronutrients and Mental Health in the CNP Research Libraries). Examples of micronutrients that might substantially impact an individual’s mental well-being are B vitamins (Sánchez-Villegas et al., 2009), folate (Bender et al., 2017), and vitamin D ( Högberg et al., 2012). Folate is found in many vegetables and has been previously discovered to be associated with depression significantly. The micronutrients vitamin B-12 and vitamin D are highly available in animal-based foods, and animal-based foods such as meat were labeled as “prestigious” in this study. Those who are “food insecure” were less likely to consume “prestigious” foods. Therefore, exploring vital micronutrients that are more prevalent in “prestigious foods” is an alternative way to assess how food insecurity impacts mental health through nutritional pathways. Analyzing alternative nutritional variables may help reveal significant evidence of how nutrition plays a role in food insecurity and well-being in future studies.

References

Bender, A., Hagan, K. E., & Kingston, N. (2017). The association of folate and depression: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 95, 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.07.019

Högberg, G., Gustafsson, S. A., Hällström, T., Gustafsson, T., Klawitter, B., & Petersson, M. (2012). Depressed adolescents in a case-series were low in vitamin D and depression was ameliorated by vitamin D supplementation. Acta Paediatrica, 101(7), 779–783. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2012.02655.x

Sánchez-Villegas, A., Doreste, J., Schlatter, J., Pla, J., Bes-Rastrollo, M., & Martínez-González, M. A. (2009). Association between folate, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 intake and depression in the SUN cohort study. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 22(2), 122–133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-277X.2008.00931.x

Weaver, L. J., Owens, C., Tessema, F., Kebede, A., & Hadley, C. (2021). Unpacking the “black box” of global food insecurity and mental health. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 282, 114042–114042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114042

Interoceptive Awareness and the Vagus Nerve: Important Elements in the Diet-Mental Health Relationship

Posted on June 28, 2021April 20, 2025 by CNP Staff

Interoception and vagus nerve : Referred to as our “eighth sense,” Interoception is our perception of the internal physiological state of our bodies. It involves the receiving, encoding, and representation of internal bodily signals in the brain and nervous system, as well as our perception of these states (Ceunen et al., 2016). Interoception encompasses non-conscious bodily signals occurring, and our conscious perception of them. These signals play a role in motivating our behavior — including our dietary intake (Paulus & Steward, 2014).

Interoceptive signals play a role in motivating our dietary intake behavior.

While the physiological characteristics and applications of Interoception are not yet fully understood, the vagus nerve gives us insight into this bidirectional communication consisting of a complex, bodywide system of nerves and hormones. A massive network of fibers, the vagus nerve travels from nearly every internal organ to the base of the brain and back again. It regulates many autonomic functions including heart rate, breathing, and digestion. More recently these vagal fibers have been found to go beyond the brainstem, showcasing a network in the brain that interprets internal changes, anticipates the body’s needs, and sends commands to fulfill them. This vagal network even expands into more complex cognitive systems, revealing insights into how we remember, process emotion, and construct our sense of self (Underwood, 2021).

This vagal network even expands into more complex cognitive systems, revealing insights into how we remember, process emotion, and construct our sense of self (Underwood, 2021).

Due to the vagus nerve being involved in both the body’s basic autonomic functions and also these higher cognitive systems, it has become of interest for treating many different conditions. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), which sends pulses of electricity to the vagus nerve has already been approved to treat depression and epilepsy. Other less invasive ways of stimulating the vagus nerve are currently being studied for rheumatoid arthritis, obesity, and Alzheimer’s. However, stimulating the vagus nerve has its limits, as the side effects can be vastly different (Underwood, 2021).

When it comes to stimulating the vagus nerve, and thereby increasing Interoceptive Awareness (Paciorek & Skora, 2020), there are less invasive ways to do so such as mindfulness, including meditation, breathing exercises, and body scans. These exercises can have a significant effect on vagal tone, and tend to activate the Insula — an area of the brain thought to be the hub of Interoception (Craig, 2009).

Eating high-quality, nutritious food is another way to increase your brain-to-body connection, and improve your vagal tone.

Eating high-quality, nutritious food is another way to increase your brain-to-body connection, and improve your vagal tone. This gut-brain axis is what allows the bacteria in your gut to communicate with your brain (Breit, 2018). Gut microbes also play an important role in your immune system and inflammation by controlling what is passed into the body and what is excreted (Rooks & Garrett, 2016). When you eat a typical Western-style diet categorized by high-sugar, high-fat foods, you are setting yourself up for inflammation in the body (Myles, 2014). By choosing to cultivate healthy gut bacteria through proper nutrition, you can strengthen your vagus nerve, thereby increasing a significant part of your Interoceptive Awareness. This can improve your Diet-Mental Health Relationship, leading to enhanced well-being and mental health.

When you eat a typical Western-style diet categorized by high-sugar, high-fat foods, you are setting yourself up for inflammation in the body (Myles, 2014).

Learn more about the role of Interoception within Nutritional Psychology in NP 110: Introduction to Nutritional Psychology Methods, and the role of the vagus nerve is NP 120: Gut-Brain/Microbiome Axis and Mental Health (coming Fall of 2021). Thank you to CNP Contributor Chelsea Louise Doswell for this article.

References:

Breit, S., Kupferberg, A., Rogler, G., & Hasler, G. (2018). Vagus Nerve as Modulator of the Brain-Gut Axis in Psychiatric and Inflammatory Disorders. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 44. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00044

Ceunen, E., Vlaeyen, J. W., & Van Diest, I. (2016). On the origin of interoception. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 743. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00743

Chen, W. G., Schloesser, D., Arensdorf, A. M., Simmons, J. M., Cui, C., Valentino, R., Gnadt, J. W., Nielsen, L., Hillaire-Clarke, C. S., Spruance, V., Horowitz, T. S., Vallejo, Y. F., & Langevin, H. M. (2021). The Emerging Science of Interoception: Sensing, Integrating, Interpreting, and Regulating Signals within the Self. Trends in neurosciences, 44(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2020.10.007

Craig A. D. (2009). How do you feel–now? The anterior insula and human awareness. Nature reviews. Neuroscience, 10(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2555

Emily Underwood. (2021). Newly detailed nerve links between brain and other organs shape thoughts, memories, and feelings. Science. https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2021/06/newly-detailed-nerve-links-between-brain-and-other-organs-shape-thoughts-memories-and.

Myles I. A. (2014). Fast food fever: reviewing the impacts of the Western diet on immunity. Nutrition Journal, 13, 61. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-13-61

Paciorek, A., & Skora, L. (2020). Vagus Nerve Stimulation as a Gateway to Interoception. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1659. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01659.

Paulus, M. P., & Stewart, J. L. (2014). Interoception and drug addiction. Neuropharmacology, 76, Pt B(0 0), 342–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.07.002

Rooks, M. G., & Garrett, W. S. (2016). Gut microbiota, metabolites and host immunity. Nature Reviews. Immunology, 16(6), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri.2016.42

The Psychology of Food Insecurity: Effects of Early COVID-19 on Mental Health

Posted on May 12, 2021April 21, 2025 by CNP Staff

The Psychology of Food Insecurity: A major component of nutritional psychology is the psychological impact of food insecurity on mental health. In the United States (as in many areas around the world), food insecurity has increased significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic and is playing a role in the rise of mental health issues. The number of U.S. households experiencing food insecurity has tripled from 11% in 2018 to 35-38% during the initial months of COVID-19. As of March 2020, 44% of those in the low-income adult population experienced food insecurity along with increased rates of depression, anxiety, and psychological distress.

In a study by Wolfson, Garcia, & Leung (2021), the association between food insecurity, depression, anxiety, and stress was examined in a low-income adult population of 1,476 individuals between March 19th-24th in 2020.

The researchers captured food security data using an 18-item U.S. Household Food Security questionnaire measuring household food insecurity status over the previous 30 days. Guidelines from the U.S. Department of Agriculture were used to define the food security categories which included high, marginal, low, or very low. Overall food insecurity was defined to include both the low and very low categories.

A Patient Health Questionnaire measured how often participants felt anxiety and depression during the previous two weeks. Anxiety was assessed by capturing how often they felt nervous, anxious, on edge, or not able to stop or control their worrying. Depression was captured by how frequently they experienced pleasure in doing things, and how often they felt down, depressed, or hopeless.

Participants used a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1) not at all, 2) somewhat, 3) very, or 4) extremely to rate their level of worry stemming from their ability to feed their families. The results revealed that very low food secure individuals were 7.49 times more likely to experience depression, 6.19 times more likely to have anxiety, and 10.91 times to perceive stress compared to food-secure individuals. The researchers concluded a clear association between increased food insecurity levels with higher depression, anxiety, and stress levels.

For the open question on how COVID-19 was affecting participants’ lives, they expressed feeling depressed, scared, anxious, and depressed and shared that the pandemic was intensifying their pre-existing mental health conditions.

The authors state that both short- and long-term mental health services must prioritize and provide equitable access to care for the low-income American population. Policies and solutions are needed to mitigate and prevent food insecure situations that impact mental health, such as the continuation of the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and access to emergency food resources.

More studies like these informing the Diet-Mental Health Relationship can be found in the CNP Food Insecurity and Mental Health research library.

References

Wolfson, J. A., Garcia, T., & Leung, C. W. (2021). Food insecurity is associated with depression, anxiety, and stress: Evidence from the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Health Equity, 5(1), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1089/heq.2020.0059

Further Reading

Coleman-Jensen, A., Rabbitt, M. P., Gregory, C.A., & Singh, A. (2020). Household food security in the United States. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from Household Food Security in the United States in 2019 – Summary (usda.gov)

Martinez, S. M., Frongillo, E. A., Leung, C., & Ritchie, L. (2020). No food for thought: Food insecurity is related to poor mental health and lower academic performance among students in California’s public university system. Journal of Health Psychology, 25(12), 1930–1939. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105318783028

Martinez, S. M., Esaryk, E. E., Moffat, L., & Ritchie, L. (2021). Redefining basic needs for higher education: It’s more than minimal food and housing according to California university students. American Journal of Health Promotion: AJHP, 890117121992295. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890117121992295

The world is currently going through an obesity pandemic (Wong et al., 2022).

Unlike in previous centuries, the primary challenge for modern human society is maintaining food intake regulation.

When fats and sugars enter the human digestive system, they trigger separate neural pathways linking to reward areas of the brain.

Junk food contains additives, many of which are added to make the food even more palatable and produce effects similar to those found in addictions

The study showed that individuals consuming high amounts of junk food regularly tend to have poorer mental health compared to those consuming it less often or not at all.

Loneliness is entirely subjective and does not necessarily rely on how many social connections one objectively has.

Loneliness may increase the risk of obesity. It may also worsen eating behaviors and eating disorders.

The high loneliness group of participants tended to have a higher fat mass percentage and eat lower-quality diets.

The study confirmed the link between social isolation and obesity.

Diet and health

The Mediterranean diet

The current study

Childhood and adolescence are critical periods in the development of mental illness

Children and adolescents with high adherence to the Mediterranean diet were less likely to suffer from depression or anxiety

Conclusion

The majority found higher adherence to the Mediterranean diet associated with fewer mental health issues

Blue zones are communities that produce individuals who are ten times more likely to reach age 100 than the average US citizen.

Rather than engaging in the exercise habits commonly seen in Western culture, Blue Zone residents live in environments that foster daily, mindless movement.

Both “Ikiaki” and “plan de Vida” translate loosely to “why I wake up in the morning,” implying recognition of a life purpose.

Downshift explores the idea of routines meant to release stress.

The Okinawan mantra Hara Hachi Bu encourages individuals to stop eating when they are 80% full.

In eating until 80% full, Blue Zone residents are pushed to chew slowly, take deep breaths, and be present in their bodies to honor their hunger cues and avoid overeating.

Red wine contains large amounts of antioxidants — polyphenols — which stabilize free radicals and counteract oxidative stress.

Prioritizing loved ones plays a role in longevity and can add up to three years of life expectancy.

Older adults who gain a sense of meaning from religion also report higher levels of mental health benefits such as life satisfaction, self-esteem, and optimism.

Physical movement, mental health, diet, and social connection appear critical to uncovering the secrets of longevity and well-being.

Changes in food production have led to the creation of items that are now consumed in excess, particularly products with refined grains and added sugars.

Being that grains are pervasive in the global diet, it is critical to understand their impact on physical health and the diet-mental health relationship.

Refined grains are defined as products modified to have low fiber content like white bread, dessert/pastries, processed noodles/pasta, and breakfast cereals.

A higher dietary intake of refined grains in countries like China and in South East Asia is significantly associated with higher risks of mortality, major CVDs, and comorbidities such as high blood pressure, myocardial infarction, strokes, and heart failure.

Processed refined grains ultimately trick the brain into thinking it is still hungry and promote feeding behaviors that lead to overeating, obesity, and CVDs.

Is Your Gut Microbiome Telling You What To Eat?

Microorganisms that live in our gut may influence what we eat!

Researchers are striving better to understand the relationship between food insecurity and mental health

A second variable that demonstrated social food-related behaviors was “food prestige,” which measured how regularly individuals could purchase desired foods (e.g., meats, spices, butter, lasagna)

Micronutrients that might substantially impact an individual’s mental well-being are B vitamins, folate, and vitamin D

Interoceptive signals play a role in motivating our dietary intake behavior.

This vagal network even expands into more complex cognitive systems, revealing insights into how we remember, process emotion, and construct our sense of self (Underwood, 2021).

Eating high-quality, nutritious food is another way to increase your brain-to-body connection, and improve your vagal tone.

When you eat a typical Western-style diet categorized by high-sugar, high-fat foods, you are setting yourself up for inflammation in the body (Myles, 2014).

Recent Articles

October 11 2025

September 28 2025

September 13 2025

SUPPORT THE FIELD

CONTINUING EDUCATION

The world is currently going through an obesity pandemic
(Wong et al., 2022).