Endocrine cells are specialized cells that produce and release hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones play a critical role in regulating numerous bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, mood, and reproductive processes. Endocrine cells help maintain the body’s internal balance or homeostasis by controlling the release of hormones.

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs in the human body that produce and release hormones. These hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological functions, including metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, sleep, and mood.

Endotoxins are the toxic substances released from the cell walls of specific bacterial proteins, particularly gram-negative bacteria when damaged or dying. For instance, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a type of endotoxin present on the cell surface of gram-negative bacteria (Raetz, 1990).

Energy balance is the harmony between the energy you consume through food and the energy your body uses through activities and metabolic processes. When intake matches expenditure, weight remains stable. Positive balance leads to weight gain and negative balance results in weight loss. Maintaining energy balance is crucial for overall health.

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a complex network of neurons located in the walls of the gastrointestinal tract, extending from the esophagus to the rectum. Often referred to as the “second brain”, it functions independently and communicates with the central nervous system. In the context of the MGBA, it is an active communication pathway through which the gut influences the brain and vice versa.

Enterochromaffin cells (ECs) are the type of endocrine cells primarily located in the epithelium of the small intestine, especially in the duodenum and jejunum. They are also present in the large intestine and rectum. ECs produce and secrete various substances, including serotonin, histamine, and dopamine. These substances act as neurotransmitters or hormones, regulating various aspects of gut function, such as gut motility, secretion, and blood flow. For example, serotonin is a crucial regulator of gastrointestinal motility, while histamine plays a role in stomach acid secretion.

Enteroendocrine cells (EECs) are specialized cells found in the lining of the small and large intestines. They produce and secrete hormones and peptides that regulate various digestive system functions. These cells activate upon binding specific components and release various gut hormones such as CCK, GLP-1, GLP-2, PYY, leptin, and ghrelin.

The enduring pleasure derived from the aesthetic appreciation of food’s sensory and symbolic value (Cornil & Chandon, 2016). This approach draws on research in the social and cultural dimensions of eating. It contrasts research examining eating pleasure in response to visceral cues, cravings, or hedonic eating.

Epigenetics is the study of how behaviors and environmental influences can modify gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself. These epigenetic changes affect how genes are read and can have lasting impacts, sometimes even across generations, by influencing susceptibility to various health conditions and traits.

Essential amino acids are a group of nine amino acids that the human body cannot synthesize independently and must obtain through dietary sources. They are essential for various physiological processes and must be included in a balanced diet.