The “Food Reinforcement Value Questionnaire” (FRVQ) is a psychological assessment tool used to measure how much effort a person is willing to exert to obtain a specific food, essentially gauging the “reinforcing value” of that food compared to other alternatives. This questionnaire is often used to study eating behaviors, understand the psychological factors influencing food choices, and potential links to obesity by assessing how strongly someone is motivated by food rewards.

Food security is a broader concept encompassing not only affordability but also availability, accessibility, and utilization of food. It is the condition in which all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

Food texture is defined as a group of physical properties derived from food structure that can be sensed by elements of the oral and pharyngeal cavities (Paik & Nam-Jong, 2020).

Viscosity refers to the thickness or the “resistance to flow” of a substance. Foods and fluids that are thinner have lower viscosity, and those that are thicker have higher viscosity. Looking at liquids, for instance, water has a low viscosity, and olive oil has a high viscosity.

Food-extrinsic factors are influences on how people perceive and evaluate a food item that come from outside the food itself. Food-extrinsic factors include food packaging, labelling, branding, price of the food item, cultural associations and meaning of the food item, background music, temperature, the overall context or the environment in which the food is consumed, and many others (Wang et al., 2019).

Food-intrinsic sensory factors are characteristics of a food item that human senses can perceive. These include the color of the food product, its texture, viscosity, etc. The taste and smell of the food item are the core food-intrinsic factors in most cases.

Free radicals are reactive molecules with unpaired electrons, causing them to seek stability by taking electrons from other molecules. This process, called oxidative stress, can damage cells and is linked to aging and diseases. Antioxidants neutralize free radicals by donating electrons, preventing harm.

Fullness hormones induce a feeling of satiety and reduce the desire to eat. Cholecystokinin (CCK) and leptin are examples of fullness hormones.

GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates brain activity by reducing neuronal excitability. It counterbalances the effects of excitatory neurotransmitters, contributing to the overall balance of neural signaling. GABA is known for its calming effects and is implicated in conditions like anxiety and epilepsy.

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT), also known as the gut, digestive tract, or alimentary canal, is a long, twisted hollow tube that extends from the mouth to the anus and is made up of interconnected hollow organs, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus (Greenwood-Van Meerveld et al., 2017).