Urbanization is the process through which an increasing proportion of a population resides in urban areas, resulting in the growth and expansion of cities and towns. This typically involves the migration of people from rural or less developed areas to urban centers in search of employment, better living conditions, and access to improved infrastructure and services.

A surgical procedure involves removing all or a part of the vagus nerve that innervates the stomach, interrupting the nerve’s signal transmission (Rabben et al., 2016).

The vagus nerve is the 10th cranial nerve, one of the longest and most complex. It originates in the brainstem and travels to the neck, thorax, and abdomen, connecting the brain to the rest of the body’s organs. It regulates blood flow, heart rate, reflex actions, breathing, digestion, and other essential processes in the body via the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). The vagus nerve is a direct physical connection between the gut and the brain (Breit et al., 2018).

The short-lived hedonic relief created by the satisfaction of eating impulses. Visceral eating pleasure is the by-product of relieving a visceral urge, often beyond the eaters’ volitional control. It can be summarized by its valence (pleasant or unpleasant), regardless of the rich aesthetic experience of eating (Cornil & Chandon, 2016).

A measurement scale (i.e., a validated questionnaire) is used within the fields of psychology and nutrition to measure one’s subjective experience or attitude to a stimulus by indicating one’s level of agreement to a statement by selecting a position along a continuous line between two end-points. The VAS has been used in nutrition research to measure ingestive behavior, pre- and postprandial hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and prospective food consumption (PFC) (Douglass & Leidy, 2019).

The physiological and neurophysiological changes involving “visual hunger” experienced in an organism in response to increased exposure to images of desirable food (Spence et al., 2016).

The Western diet typically refers to a dietary pattern characterized by high consumption of processed foods, refined sugars, unhealthy fats (such as saturated and trans fats), red meat, and low intake of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and seeds. It’s associated with higher rates of obesity, heart disease, diabetes, and other chronic health conditions prevalent in Western countries.

White blood cells (WBCs) are blood cells that play a crucial role in the immune system by defending the body against infections. There are various types, each with specific functions in immune res