Sport and Disordered Eating
The CNP Sport and Disordered Eating Research Category consolidates research exploring the relationship between sport, dietary intake, athletic performance, and mental health. Patricia Hubbard, MA is CNP’s Sport and Mental Health contributor and is the lead developer of this research category. To view each original study on the open internet, click “Original.” To view the CNP-written abstract summary, click “CNP Summary.” While only some of the CNP-written abstract summaries are available below for free, all abstract summaries are available to CNP members through the CNP Library Membership.
This 2020 study investigates whether gender and team interdependence (whether the competition is engaged with one person or as a team) affects psychosocial risk factors for disordered eating. This experiment was conducted among a sample of non-athletes, individual athletes, and team athletes. While gender was found to significantly influence these psychosocial risk factors, team type did not appear to have a main effect. However, there were considerable differences in psychosocial variables between genders. Women were characterized by higher scores than men in drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and emotion recognition, whereas men scored relatively higher in emotional dysregulation and binge eating. Benau et al. also combined all the athletes (both individual and team athletes) and compared their statistics with non-athletes. Relative to male athletes and women non-athletes, female athletes showed higher scores in drive for thinness, emotion dysregulation, and binge eating. On the other hand, male athletes demonstrated greater difficulty identifying their feelings and increased body dissatisfaction, compared with female athletes. Risk of eating disorders can be conveyed by emotional processes among men and women, especially in athletes.
2021
Perceived ideal body weight exacerbates bulimia and dieting in Bodybuilding Athletes
Bodybuilding athletes often pursue a highly muscular, lean, and symmetrical physique, leading them to adopt rigorous exercise routines and strict diets. These practices can sometimes result in disordered eating behaviors. This study examines factors that may worsen disordered eating among both professional and recreational bodybuilding and strength athletes. The cross-sectional study involved 103 Cypriot athletes of both sexes, categorized into professional, recreational, and strength athletes. Researchers used the Eating Attitude Test 26 (EAT-26) and The Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-R21) to assess disordered eating and eating behaviors. Differences based on sex were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U test, while differences related to bodybuilding status and body weight deviations were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test. The study, conducted under the Hellenic Center of Education & Treatment of Eating Disorders (KEADD), found that greater discrepancies between ideal and actual body weight increased the risk of eating disorders. Athletes desiring a lower body weight had higher EAT-26 scores, particularly in dieting and bulimia subscales. Non-professional athletes showed higher cognitive restraint and emotional eating scores, with women scoring higher on emotional eating. The findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to reduce eating disorder risks among bodybuilding athletes.
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2022
Contributing factors to low energy availability in female athletes: A narrative review of energy availability, training demands, nutrition barriers, body image, and disordered eating
“Relative Energy Deficiency '' in sports is a field of growing research interest, especially in the female athlete population. This is a condition characterized by low energy availability (a result of high energy utilization), insufficient energy intake, or a mixture of both factors. A myriad of contributors that predict a low energy state in athletes exists, and thus, an encompassing holistic approach is necessary to identify and assess the underlying causes. In this narrative review by Jagim et al. (2022), the authors discuss the main contributors and risk factors predisposing to low energy availability in female athletes, with the aim to enhance the efficiency of clinical practitioners in addressing this issue and to earmark areas of future research. [NPID: Energy expenditure, energy intake, female athletes, health, low energy availability]
2020
Traits of orthorexia nervosa and the determinants of these behaviors in elite athletes
In this study by Surała et al. (2020), the authors investigated orthorexia nervosa (ON - the unhealthy focus on eating healthy food) and how it impacts body composition and body anthropometry. In a population of 273 competitive athletes (females = 125, males = 148) they used a self-administered ORTO-15 questionnaire to evaluate ON and a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) to evaluate total body composition. The results revealed a positive relationship between ORTO-15 scores and total body mass (TBM), bone mineral content (BMC), body mass index (BMI), visceral adipose tissue (VAT), and lean soft tissue in male athletes, and with BMI and BMC in weight-dependent male athletes. No significant relationships were discovered between ORTO-15 scores and other parameters concerning female athletes or the overall group of athletes. A substantial relationship was seen in female athletes between ON and weekly training time in the sprint and high-intensity intermittent effort groups only. Therefore, the authors draw the conclusion that ON impacts BMI and body composition in male athletes, and the time spent training weekly as a female athlete, in addition to highlighting that a substantial portion of athletes may be susceptible to ON regardless of sex, sport, age, or time spent training every week. [NPID: DXA, body composition, ORTO-15, athletes, sex, type of sports]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2018
A study on the relationship between exercise addiction, abnormal eating attitudes, anxiety and depression among athletes in Israel
In this study, Levit et al. (2018) examined the links between exercise addiction, disordered eating behaviors, anxiety, and depression, in a population of 100 amateur and competitive athletes practicing both individual and group sports (mean age 28.3 years, males = 67). Participants submitted an Exercise Addiction Inventory, Eating Attitudes Test, Body Shape Questionnaire, Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Analysis of the results revealed that exercise addiction was substantially associated with BDI scores, in addition to disordered eating behaviors, but not with trait or state anxiety. Participants who practiced individual sports reported a modestly higher depression score compared to their peers who practiced group sports, however, there was no significant difference in depression between amateur and competitive athletes. Furthermore, disordered eating behaviors were substantially related to exercise addiction scores, and it was revealed that body shape contributed to the relationship between disordered eating and exercise addiction. The authors comment that their study sheds light on the links between exercise addiction and depression, in addition to the role of disordered eating behaviors in the variability seen in exercise addiction, which ultimately is in agreement with published evidence on the negative relationship between eating disorders and exercise addiction. [NPID: Abnormal eating attitudes, anxiety, depression, exercise addiction]
2021
The relationship between social media and disordered eating in college-aged female gymnasts
Several studies investigated the links between social media, eating disorders, and disordered eating behaviors in college-aged females. However, the body of evidence on women college athletes, particularly those who practice aesthetic sports like gymnastics, remains insufficient. Of note, aesthetic sports that subject female athletes to scoring by panels of judges and that place emphasis on leanness, thinness, and aesthetic skills, are known to harbor the highest odds of individuals who suffer from disordered eating behaviors. Ausmus et al. (2021) conducted their study to investigate the relationship between college gymnasts’ experience of body image, disordered eating, and the perception of athletic bodies portrayed in social media. In addition, the authors aimed to investigate the relationship between criticism expressed on social media and the symptoms of disordered eating. 72 female gymnasts (recently or currently competing, 18-25 years old) completed an online survey, revealing the existence of a substantial relationship between the harshness of physically critical comments, the emotional response to such criticism, and disordered eating behavior, in the setting of comments not made on social media. However, the authors did not find substantial links between harshness, emotional response, and disordered eating in the setting of comments made on social media. [NPID: Twitter, facebook, snapchat, instagram, eating disorders, athletes, criticism]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2007
Anxiety of young female athletes with disordered eating behaviors
In this study, Vardar et al. (2007) examined the prevalence of disordered eating behaviors in a population of young female athletes (aged 15-25 years, n = 243), and evaluated the levels of anxiety these athletes experience relative to the presence or absence of disordered eating, using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-40) and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Analysis of the results demonstrated that 16.7% of the athletes suffered from disordered eating behaviors, and that these athletes scored significantly higher on their state and trait anxiety compared to their peers who did not suffer from disordered eating behaviors. No differences were seen in EAT-40 results due to the type of sport the athletes participated in. The authors thus conclude that disordered eating behaviors correlate with higher levels of state and trait anxiety in young athletes. [NPID: Adolescent, anxiety, eating disorders, personality Inventory, sports]
2018
The athletes’ relationships with training scale (ART): A self-report measure of unhealthy training behaviors associated with eating disorders
Current evidence points to eating disorders (EDs) being increasingly prevalent in athletes compared to non-athletes. This is postulated to be due to competitive sport participation, which subjects athletes to arduous physical-activity regimens, however, assessment of such regimens proves to be challenging due to the higher intensities and the longer durations of time that are required from athletes compared to non-athletes. As ED assessment tools were created utilizing non-athlete populations, it can be argued that they fail to evaluate the full scope of athletic experience. Thus, Chapa et al. (2018) sought to design and authenticate a self-report measurement tool to evaluate unhealthy training behaviors and beliefs held by athletes, named the Athletes' Relationships with Training Scale (ART). After testing the scale on a sample of 267 female college athlete members of an ED prevention program, and 65 female athletes receiving treatment for ED, the results showed a substantial relationship between ART scores and the time spent seeking healthcare assistance for several complaints, and that ART scores were higher in athletes with EDs compared to those without. Furthermore, ART scores were shown to decrease substantially with effective ED treatment from admission to discharge. In conclusion, ART appears to be a beneficial, validated tool that can be used by clinicians and trainers to evaluate if their athletes suffer from unhealthy training behaviors that could necessitate medical intervention, and can aid in tracking treatment outcomes in athletes suffering from EDs. [NPID: Assessment, eating disorders, excessive exercise, scale development]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2018
Essentials for best practice: Treatment approaches for athletes with eating disorders
Eating disorders (EDs) and disordered-eating behaviors (DEBs) increase the chance of death and affect physical health, mental health, and quality of life. The athlete population is especially at risk, owing to the increasing prevalence of EDs and DEBs in this vulnerable group. In this study by Conviser et al. (2018), the authors look at the challenges faced in ameliorating EDs and DEBs seen in athletes using a multidisciplinary care approach, one of which is the critical need for efficient and frequent communication channels among multidisciplinary treatment team (MDTT) members. The authors recommend that certain members would be qualified to join the MDTT, such as coaches, trainers, physical therapists, and certified fitness professionals, and that these individuals should receive ED education and sensitivity training. Addressing ED and DEBs would require the addition of other critical components, for example, evidence-based psychotherapeutics, emotional regulatory interventions, compassionate care, and accurate continuous monitoring of the athletes. Finally, the authors highlight the need for establishing and agreeing upon indicators for safe return to play and mindful adjustment of physical activity levels during periods of ED recovery to help maintain health, avoid injuries or relapses, and facilitate returning to sport participation. [NPID: Athletes, eating disorder, disordered-eating behaviors, multidisciplinary team]
2022
Mental health, eating behaviour and injuries in professional dance students
Professional dancers face a myriad of complex physical and mental health challenges that may vary with sex, academics, and performance. Mathisen et al. (2022) conducted their study on a population of 124 professional dance students (males n = 14) and assessed them for depression and anxiety (SCL-10), self-esteem (RSS), perfectionism (CAPS), resilience (RSA), low energy availability (LEA, LEAF-q), body appreciation (BAS-2), and eating disorders (EDs) (EDE-q). The conducted assessments revealed that between 20-54% of dancers reported symptoms of depression or anxiety, low energy availability (females), ED and/or physical injuries, while 12% of dancers reported a positive past history of ED. Further analysis demonstrated that perfectionism and self-esteem played a role in the experienced depression and anxiety symptoms, while the presence of ED and training volume contributed to symptoms of LEA. In addition, the risk of physical injury was found to be influenced by BMI, academic year and LEA, while body appreciation helped reduce the prevalence of EDs. Despite half of the dancers being aware of potentially experiencing current personal mental health issues, less than 45% of them were willing to seek professional assistance. The authors postulate that improving body acceptance may address the mental health challenges experienced by dancers and that enhancing nutritional knowledge and regulating body weight may decrease LEA, EDs, and physical injuries. [NPID: Perfectionism, self-esteem, body appreciation, depression, energy availability, eating disorders, dance, ballet, contemporary, jazzdance]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2018
Eating disorders in sports and football: An updated review
Derangements in dietary habits and eating disorders (EDs) are frequently seen in athletes. In this review by Diaz et al. (2018), the authors outline the current evidence on EDs in sports, particularly in football, as the research on EDs in this population remains insufficient. The authors present an overview on EDs in sports, and challenge the classification of certain sports as low vs high-risk for EDs, in addition to the etiology, course, and impact of ED in sports on various socio-cultural, psychosocial, behavioral, and athletic-related factors, including currently observed trends that may worsen the risk of developing EDs. Furthermore, the authors highlight the available recommendations for ED management and prevention, including addressing potential risk factors, and the knowledge gaps that require further work to improve the available methodological, empirical, and conceptual evidence to help advance research and formulate effective intervention modalities. [NPID: Sports, disordered eating, eating disorders, risk factors, prevention, football, athletes]
2019
Drive for thinness predicts musculoskeletal injuries in division II NCAA female athletes
The concomitant occurrence of low energy, menstrual derangements, and low bone density is known as the female athlete triad and is thought to be the etiology behind bone stress injuries. In this study by Scheid & Stefanik (2019), the authors investigated the links between the motivation for thinness—an indirect indicator of low energy—and musculoskeletal injuries, in a population of 57 NCAA Division II college female athletes followed for a season in their sports. The participants were divided into groups based on their drive for thinness (DT, high vs. low) and electronic medical records were used to document their injuries throughout the season (90 recorded injuries in 47 participants). Analysis of the results revealed that most prevalent injuries suffered by athletes were: lower back pain/spasm/strain injuries, shin splints/medial tibial stress syndrome, knee pain, quadriceps strain, and knee sprains (involving the anterior cruciate, posterior cruciate, medial or lateral collateral ligaments), with the high DT group suffering substantially more injuries compared to the low DT group. Thus, the authors deduced that a higher drive for thinness in female athletes is linked to suffering more injuries throughout a competitive season. [NPID: Division II, college athletes, drive for thinness, female athlete triad, injuries]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2021
Nutritional risks among adolescent athletes with disordered eating
The focus of this 2021 literature review was the nutritional problems faced by adolescent athletes with disordered eating or eating disorders. Athletes often use harmful weight-control practices that may contribute to the development of eating disorders or disordered eating. These medical and mental implications may be more serious among adolescent athletes since their bodies need to meet training requirements in addition to intensive growth demands. Consequently, these young athletes may be at nutritional risk, having high nutrient needs and adopting unhealthy eating behaviors. This literature review aimed to uncover the nutritional risks and malnutrition problems faced by adolescent athletes with disordered eating/eating disorders. The most common nutritional risks possibly induced by disordered eating were dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, deficiencies (in energy, macronutrients, and micronutrients), decreased bone mass density, and potentially harmful changes in body composition. To avoid nutrition-related issues, education programs are essential. Early detection is also paramount to ensure the timely management of nutritional problems, particularly in vulnerable groups such as adolescent athletes. [NPID: nutrition, nutritional deficiency, malnutrition, adolescents, athletes, sports, disordered eating, eating disorders]
2019
Gender differences in eating disorder risk among NCAA Division I cross country and track student-athletes
This 2019 study examined the eating disorder risk of NCAA Division I cross country and track distance running student-athletes. The study recruited 638 student-athletes (both sexes) competing at distances of 800m or greater. Risk of eating disorders was measured by checking their Eating Disorder Screen for Primary Care (ESP) score. Of the questions in the ESP, the number of items answered affirmatively by the athletes was important in determining the person’s level of eating disorder risk. When the cutoff score of 2 was used, female athletes were more likely to be at risk for eating disorders, in comparison to males (with 71% specificity). Female athletes were also screened positive at higher rates than males at a stricter cutoff of 3 items affirmatively answered (specificity at 92%). This article highlights that both male and female distance runners are at risk of eating disorders, although female athletes are shown to have a higher chance of developing the disorder. [NPID: athletes, eating disorders, disordered eating, distance runners, cross country runners, students, young athletes, diet]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2019
Factors associated with eating disorders in male athletes
In this 2018 study, a survey was conducted to determine the prevalence of disordered eating among male athletes and non-athletes. All 186 male participants were aged between 18 and 26 years. The aim of this project was to divide the male athletes into types and levels of sports participation and identify any factors that may contribute to their disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. Sport types included “lean” and “non-lean” sports, while athletic participation was grouped into one of: recreational athletes; low- competitive level; high-competitive level. There were no significant differences in average eating disorder scores (indicated by the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire survey) between athletes and non-athletes, nor between the groups varying in sports type and competitive level. Excessive exercising was higher among the athletes than the non-athletes (23.1% vs. 12.5%), and incidences of binge eating disorders were higher in the non-athletes than the athletes (~50% vs. 42%). A considerably greater percentage of athletes competing in “lean” sports reported excessive exercising, compared with athletes involved in “non-lean” sports. Additionally, those competing at high levels of competition were more likely to show greater dietary restraint than those low-level competition athletes, and recreational athletes. This study concluded that the incidence of disordered eating patterns and pathological weight control behaviors was not different in male athletes, compared with the non-athletic population. But it cannot be said that sport type and participation level pose a greater risk for eating disorders in male athletes. [NPID: eating disorder, disordered eating, sports, competition level, non-athletes, athletes, diet restriction, male athletes, weight control behaviors]
2021
Extreme weight control behaviors among adolescent athletes: Links with weight-related maltreatment from parents and coaches and sport ethic norms
The aim of this 2021 study was to investigate whether adolescent athletes are likely to use extreme weight-control behaviors due to the influence of sport ethic norms and weight-related maltreatment from coaches and parents. Recently these two variables have been linked with the use of extreme weight-control behaviors. The 999 French-Canadian athletes (aged 14-17 years) who signed up to this study completed online surveys on conformity to sport ethic norms, behaviors, and potential maltreatment from coaches and parents. Around 17% of the respondents had adopted extreme weight-control behaviors during their athletic careers, while 7.4% experienced at least one type of weight-related maltreatment by coaches or parents. Just under a quarter of the extreme weight-control behaviors were explained by sex- and weight-related mistreatment from coaches and parents, as well as weight-related psychological violence. It was evident that the prevalence of extreme weight-control behaviors was more prevalent among girls than boys (19.75% in girls vs 9.7% in boys). Those adolescents engaging in extreme weight-control behaviors experienced significantly more violence than the other participants did. [NPID: sports, disordered eating, eating disorder, adolescent athletes, weight-control behaviors, maltreatment, violence, ethics]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2020
Eating disorders and nutritional habits of female university athletes
The purpose of this 2020 study was to investigate the eating habits and possible presence of eating disorders among female university athletes. Although the diagnostic methods are advancing and the amount of research on female athletes is rising, these sports athletes are experiencing more musculoskeletal injuries and health issues than before. In this research study, 77 university student female athletes were assessed on eating disorders through a questionnaire. Strength/power athletes were found to skip meals more often and use nutritional supplements. Overall, the eating disorder prevalence rate was 32.5% among all the participants. Longer weekly exercise duration was moderately associated with higher eating disorder scores. To conclude, eating disorders and disordered eating were highly prevalent among the 77 female college athletes. As well as encouraging athletes to adjust their eating habits, another necessity is informing athletes and their trainers about this issue. The diagnosis and treatment process of eating disorders should include a multidisciplinary team consisting of physicians, dieticians, nurses, psychologists, and coaches. [NPID: athletes, sports, disordered eating, eating disorder, female athletes, students, diet, eating habits, sports injuries]
2020
Disordered eating and eating disorders in male elite athletes: A scoping review
This 2020 article is a review of eating disorders and disordered eating in male elite athletes. A systematic literature search was conducted, yielding a total of 80 relevant studies. These included interventional trials, reviews, as well as uncontrolled and controlled studies. Among these studies there were many differences in sports type, the competition levels of the athletes, and their ages. There were also discrepancies in the definition of disordered eating. The highest prevalence rate of disordered eating was 32.5%, which was higher than the general population. But the incidence rate was not higher in young and adolescent male elite athletes, compared with the control group. Competing in weight-sensitive sports was the most common factor associated with disordered eating. Across these studies male elite athletes tended to show less body dissatisfaction than control groups. However, there were no studies examining the prognosis of disordered eating in male elite athletes. Furthermore, the review did not find any reports containing an evidence-based approach for managing disordered eating in male high-level athletes. In conclusion, the existing research articles indicate a high prevalence of disordered eating and eating disorders in male elite athletes, potentially caused by a multitude of possible factors. [NPID: eating disorders, disordered eating, review, athletes, sports, elite athletes]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2021
Differences in attitudes, behaviours and beliefs towards eating between female bodybuilding athletes and non-athletes, and the implications for eating disorders and disordered eating
This 2021 study analyzed the eating attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs of female bodybuilding athletes. A non-athlete group was also included to provide comparisons. The authors aim to address the limited research conducted on female bodybuilding athletes. Female athletes participating in sports that emphasize aesthetics are said to be possibly more prone to developing eating disorders and disordered eating than non-athletes, males, and those athletes involved in sports with less emphasis on leanness. Although there was a difference in body mass between the female bodybuilders and non-athletes, there were no significant discrepancies in age, stature, or body mass index between the two groups. The data also revealed that considerably more athletes were deemed to be “at risk” of an eating disorder, compared with non-athletes. A separate questionnaire for the athletes indicated high preoccupation with body mass, and negative self-perception. These bodybuilding athletes often engage in exercise to alter their body mass. To conclude, female bodybuilding athletes exhibit behaviors linked with disordered eating and eating disorders. Compared to non-athletes, they were more likely to be concerned with nutrient intake, exercise, and changing their appearance. [NPID: athletes, sports, disordered eating, eating disorders, bodybuilding, female athletes, perception]
2021
Association between body shape, body mass index, and eating disorders among athletics’ and non-athletics’ female students
Since a variety of factors can influence the development of eating disorders, this 2021 study looked at possible differences in perception between athletic and non-athletic female students. Salem & Bayomi specifically looked at the young students’ perceptions of body image, body mass index, and eating disorders. The “athletic” girls were students from the faculty of physical education for girls. These athletic students obtained higher scores in the eating attitude test, signifying moderate to severe body shape dissatisfaction. These same students were also found to be significantly different to non-athletic students in terms of not only actual body size but also perceived body image. These results showcased that athletic female students were more likely to be dissatisfied with their body image, and develop eating disorders when compared with non-athletic female students. Extra studies are needed to further examine this eating disorder risk among athletic female students to stop this problem from growing. Athletic departments are advised to examine their students for eating disorders to detect risk at an early stage. [NPID: body shape, eating disorders, athletes, athletic female students, disordered eating, body image, perception]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2019
Risk for eating disorders in “high” and “low”- risk sports and football (soccer): A profile analysis with clustering techniques
The purpose of this 2019 study was to investigate if there are psychosocial factors that contribute to risk of eating disorders in sports athletes, with a particular focus on soccer players. Recent studies have indicated that footballers and other athletes involved in “low-risk” sports are just as susceptible to developing eating disorders as athletes from sports that emphasize weight and body appearance. The athlete’s eating habits questionnaire (CHAD) was administered to a total of 357 athletes, including footballers. The results showed that 10.9% of athletes scored 100 points or more on the CHAD, implying that a large number of athletes are either at risk of developing or already suffer from eating disorders. The data also demonstrated that a higher proportion of footballers (11.4%) scored 100 points or higher on the CHAD. Based on athletes’ beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, the footballers were rated to be at moderate risk of eating disorders. Traditionally, different sports are classified as either high- or low- risk, but the findings of this study are conflicting with this way of sports grouping. The authors believe that the type of sports the athlete participates in may not be the most important factor in eating disorder risk. Athletes, including footballers, may have a heightened risk for EDs when they have certain combinations of dysfunctional beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. [NPID: footballers, soccer, athletes, sports, disordered eating, eating disorders, psychosocial]
2020
Self-confidence and disordered eating amongst martial artists: A cross-sectional study
The focus of this 2020 article was the relationship between self-confidence and extreme dieting among martial artists. The researchers assessed 111 Swedish athletes practicing either mixed martial arts (MMA) or Brazilian-jiu-jitsu (BJJ). The measures used to calculate disordered eating and self-confidence were the Eating Disorder Examination questionnaire (EDE-Q) and the Trait Sport-Confidence inventory (TSCI). The results demonstrated that those who practiced mixed martial arts dieted in more extreme ways than the BJJ athletes. These participants mostly restricted their food intake. More mixed martial artists used restrictive eating compared to the BJJ athletes. MMA athletes also had higher sports-specific self-confidence, which was incidentally associated with weight loss. The study found that the BJJ athletes who dieted in extreme ways generally had lower self-confidence than MMA athletes. These findings back up previous studies showing MMA athletes experiencing rapid weight loss. Furthermore, this article suggests that some martial artists are at a particular risk of extreme dieting. There is a correlation between self-confidence and weight loss, but further research is required to explain this relationship. [NPID: self-confidence, dieting, restrictive eating, MMA, athletes, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Sweden, weight loss, eating disorders, disordered eating]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2020
Link between eating disorder, risk, self-esteem, and body image among Puerto Rican high school student-athletes
In this 2020 study, a sample of Puerto Rican high school athletes were assessed on their risk of developing eating disorders. Student athletes are thought to face multiple social and cultural pressures that can exponentially increase the chances of developing eating disorders. Influential factors may include high expectations of coaches, teammates, and friends, which can cause the young athletes to feel desperate in meeting the high demands of their sport. The author also checks if risk of eating disorders can be affected by factors such as self-esteem and body image of the student-athlete. Thirty-six Puerto-Rican high school student-athletes took part in a sociodemographic questionnaire, as well as several tests on eating attitudes, self-esteem, and body appreciation. The data analysis models did not indicate any correlation between body image, self-esteem, and eating disorder risk. These students were not likely to develop eating disorders given that they possessed a normal body image and a favorable level of self-esteem. While these results are positive, a larger group of student-athletes can be examined to back up the evidence. [NPID: high school, athletes, student athletes, eating disorders, body image, self-esteem, Puerto Rico]
2020
Eating disorders in former NCAA Division I collegiate gymnasts and their behaviors after graduating
In this 2020 study, a sample of former high division collegiate gymnasts were investigated to determine the incidence rate of eating disorders. Ninety female former NCAA collegiate gymnasts from the USA were handed questionnaires on disordered eating. According to one of these questionnaires, 40% of these athletes scored as potentially exhibiting eating disorders. Another questionnaire based on disordered eating demonstrated that around one third of the participants potentially had eating disorders. But the BSQ questionnaire, which measures concerns about body weight and shape, indicated the least number of gymnasts as potentially having eating disorders. Eleven former gymnasts scored as having a potential eating disorder in all three questionnaires. These results suggest that eating disorders may continue or manifest after a gymnast’s career is over. This article might help educate those people involved in sports such as athletes’ parents, coaches, teammates, and trainers. Being aware of these statistics can potentially help former gymnasts stay vigilant with regards to the potential of eating disorders among retired athletes. [NPID: athletes, sports, disordered eating, eating disorders, retirement, retired athletes, gymnasts, collegiate athletes, former athletes, body weight, body shape]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2019
Retired athletes and the intersection of food and body: A systematic literature review exploring compensatory behaviours and body change
This 2019 article takes a closer look at former elite sportspeople, examining their eating behaviors and body dissatisfaction. Retiring from professional sports may influence significant identity, body, and lifestyle changes, which is why a literature review was conducted to investigate. Buckley et al. searched for relevant articles in six different databases. Among the 16 articles that were identified, three main themes arose. These included body dissatisfaction and grief, disordered eating, and long-term influence of sporting culture. It was determined that maladaptive and compensatory behaviors can arise from sustained athletic identity, body grief, lack of education, and contradictory body ideals. A lack of body acceptance may lead to maladaptive behaviors related to food, exercise, and body arising in this transitory period. This review brings up the need for sporting organizations and health professionals to acknowledge the significant changes in eating and body attitudes that individuals go through post-retirement. [NPID: athletes, body image, diet, dietary behaviors, retirement, retired athletes]
2019
Perfectionism, body satisfaction and dieting in athletes: the role of gender and sport type
Given that athletes are often more likely to develop disordered eating due to their perfectionistic tendencies, this 2019 study investigated the degree to which perfectionism and body satisfaction alone contribute to athletes’ dietary behaviors. There were 280 participants recruited by this study, including 192 male and 99 female athletes. The participants were tested on eating attitudes, perfectionism, and body image satisfaction. Overall, there were no marked differences in dietary behaviors between sport types and genders. But body satisfaction was found to be the only significant predictor of dieting among female athletes. Incidentally, body satisfaction was also found to mediate the relationship between perfectionism and dieting. These results highlight that body satisfaction plays a big role in disordered eating development among female athletes. [NPID: body satisfaction, disordered eating, sports, athletes, dieting, perfectionism, body image]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2020
Disordered eating attitudes, anxiety, self-esteem and perfectionism in young athletes and non-athletes
This 2020 study compared the incidences of eating disorders among female athletes with non-athletes. Eating disorders are said to cause certain events that can influence sports performance. An aim of this article was to identify personality characteristics that can contribute to the risk of developing eating disorders. The eating disorder prevalence of 80 adolescent female athletes was compared to a group of 40 non-athletes. The SCOFF questionnaire was used to examine the presence of disordered eating and certain psychological aspects pertinent to eating disorder status/disordered eating symptoms. One of the most notable results was the higher SCOFF questionnaire score in the non-athletes compared with the athletes. These non-athlete female adolescents may display more disturbed eating behaviors and thoughts than athletic female adolescents and could possibly be at greater risk of developing clinical eating disorders. [NPID: disordered eating, eating disorder, athletes, adolescents, eating behavior, sports performance, sports]
2019
Two days of calorie deprivation impairs high level cognitive processes, mood, and self-reported exertion during aerobic exercise: A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study
This 2019 study tested the combined effect of sustained aerobic exercise and limited calorie consumption on cognitive ability. While cognitive function is preserved during short-term calorie restriction, it is unclear whether this can be maintained if performing physically demanding tasks. In this experiment, 23 volunteers were deprived of calories for 2 days on one occasion, and fully fed on another. The participants completed intermittent periods of exercise at 40-65% VO2peak while the researchers measured their cognitive control, mood, and perceived exertion. Not consuming calories impaired the subjects’ accuracy in one of the task-switching tasks, and reduced sensitivity in the go/no-go task of response inhibition. But calorie deprivation did not affect risk-taking, according to the Rogers risk task. When the volunteers were performing exercise while undergoing calorie deprivation, they demonstrated higher perceived exertion and impaired mood states of tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and confusion. It was deduced that physical exertion during severe calorie deprivation diminishes cognitive control, mood, and self-rated exertion. These deficits may be explained by the reallocation of metabolic resources in the brain from the prefrontal cortex to structures that support movement. [NPID: cognition, cognitive function, exercise, calorie restriction, calorie deprivation, mood, perceived exertion, psychology]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2020
Role of a ketogenic diet on body composition, physical health, psychosocial well-being and sports performance in athletes: A scoping review
The purpose of this 2020 review was to evaluate the existing literature on the efficacy of the ketogenic diet among athletes. Recently, researchers have been focusing their attention on examining the potential benefits of maintaining a ketogenic diet in improving body composition, physical health, psychological well-being, and performance of athletes. There were 12 articles that met the inclusion criteria and were added to the final scoping review. While adhering to a ketogenic diet can positively influence body weight and fat mass, the diet’s impact on physical health varied. Although the adherence to a ketogenic diet provides benefits to physical health including fat oxidation (the breaking down of fatty acids), this eating habit also negatively affects stool microbiota and iron metabolism. Moreover, this low-carb, high-fat diet had conflicting effects on sporting performance. Athletes reported better well-being after starting the ketogenic diet, but only after the second week. Following a ketogenic diet had both positive and detrimental effects among athletic populations. Additional research is required to back up any concluding statements on the role of the ketogenic diet in athletes. [NPID: athletes, sports, ketogenic diet, review, performance, body composition, physical health, well-being, mental health]
2020
Reasons for and consequences of low energy availability in female and male athletes: Social environment, adaptations, and prevention
This 2020 review describes the problems associated with low energy availability, particularly among athletes who are especially at risk of reaching this state in which the body does not have enough energy left to support all bodily part functions required to maintain optimal health. This article explains why there are multiple reasons why athletes are particularly at risk. Low energy availability may be the result of changes in eating behaviors, which can be attributed to body dissatisfaction (the belief that lower body weight will improve performance) or social pressure to look a certain way. The athlete’s social environment also has a big role in low energy availability, since pressure can come from coaches, teammates, and even social media platforms. While female athletes have started to fight against the pressure to be thin through their social media platforms, male athletes also appear to be at risk. Apart from the factors mentioned earlier, low energy availability can develop unintentionally in athletes who expend high levels of energy (e.g. rowers and cyclists). This can occur especially when the athletes’ caloric consumption does not match their exercise intensity. The low energy availability state can be detrimental to health and performance. Both short- and long-term low energy availability can cause alterations in endocrine levels, mental disorders, thyroid suppression, and changes in metabolic responses. [NPID: sports performance, energy, low energy availability, athletes, environment, body image, body dissatisfaction, social pressure, sports, rowing, cycling]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2019
Mental health symptoms related to body shape idealization in female fitness physique athletes
This 2019 study assessed if preparing for fitness sports competitions affects mental health symptoms. The prevalence of mental health issues is high among athletes, but there are limited studies that analyze fitness physique athletes. Being young, female, and competing in aesthetic sports is a high-risk triad for mental health symptoms. Therefore, this study examined fitness physique athletes and another group of females on mental health symptoms such as dietary behavior, perfectionism, body image, and relationship with exercise. Before competition, the athletes showed greater drive to be lean and increased eating restraint, compared with the female group used for reference. Eating restraint was higher and the number of disordered eating symptoms were lower in the athletes at the time of competition. The fitness physique athletes exhibited higher levels of drive for leanness and muscularity, and exercised more for figure toning, in comparison to the female reference group. The differences seen during competition remained even one month after the end of the event. Overall, the athletes managed the dieting aspect, but self-control decreased post-competition. There was a rise in disordered eating and body shape concern after competition. Furthermore, perfectionism was associated with eating restrictions among the fitness physique athletes but related to disordered eating in the female reference group. In this female group, high drive for leanness generally correlated with more disordered eating behavior. [NPID: athletes, fitness, physique, mental health symptoms, diet, behavior, perfectionism, body image, exercise, disordered eating, sports, competition]
2021
Hydration, eating attitudes and behaviors in age and weight-restricted youth American football players
This 2021 study investigated the hydration status of young American football players and aimed to summarize their eating patterns. The study recruited 63 youth football players competing in different leagues. There is one league that requires players to regulate their weight, while another league imposes an age restriction. On average, the players arrived to the sports activities hypohydrated (with lower hydration levels than the body’s metabolic demands). Their body mass did not change by much during events. In terms of diet, the players ate 2 (± 1) meals and 1 (± 1) snack before events. The Children’s Eating Attitude Test (ChEAT) revealed that 21.6% of the young athletes were at risk for abnormal eating attitudes. There were reports of binge eating, vomiting, excessive exercise, and drastic weight loss among these football players. In summary, young American football players arrived at their sports session mildly hypohydrated and consumed enough fluids during activity to maintain water balance (euhydration). Some of these players showed abnormal eating attitudes and unhealthy weight loss methods. [NPID: american football, sports, sports psychology, disordered eating, eating disorder, binge eating, athletes, hydration, weight loss]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2020
Disordered eating and eating disorders in adolescent athletes
The aim of this 2020 review was to discuss the importance of disordered eating in adolescent athletes, particularly focusing on female athletes with disordered eating disorders. The reviewers examined the literature on adolescents who may be affected by both binge eating disorders (BED) and other eating disorders. Relevant articles were identified by searching on PubMed using term variations of “feeding and eating disorders” and “athletes” with “high school”. The search produced 20 studies with relevance to disordered eating in adolescent athletes. Compared to other psychological disorders, there were higher incidences of comorbidities accompanying eating disorders. It was also found that a small percentage of patients with eating disorders seek treatment. Moreover, eating disorders were more prevalent in adolescent elite athletes than non-athletes of both genders (in all sports and levels of competition). More powerful tools for identifying disordered eating behaviors are needed by family practice physicians, nurses, and coaches to use when working with at-risk adolescent athletes. Healthcare professionals as well as school teaching staff ought to be educated and trained to detect disordered eating. [NPID: sports, disordered eating, eating disorders, binge eating disorders, school, athletes, review]
2020
Difficulties in emotion regulation, alexithymia, and social phobia are associated with disordered eating in male and female undergraduate athletes
This 2020 study investigated whether gender and team interdependence (whether the competition is engaged with one person or as a team) affects psychosocial risk factors for disordered eating. This experiment was conducted among a sample of non-athletes, individual athletes, and team athletes. While gender was found to significantly influence these psychosocial risk factors, team type did not appear to have a main effect. However, there were considerable differences in psychosocial variables between genders. Women were characterized by higher scores than men in drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and emotion recognition, whereas men scored relatively higher in emotional dysregulation and binge eating. Benau et al. also combined all the athletes (both individual and team athletes) and compared their statistics with non-athletes. Relative to male athletes and women non-athletes, female athletes showed higher scores in drive for thinness, emotion dysregulation, and binge eating. On the other hand, male athletes demonstrated greater difficulty identifying their feelings and increased body dissatisfaction, compared with female athletes. Risk of eating disorders can be conveyed by emotional processes among men and women, especially in athletes. [NPID: disordered eating, emotional regulation, athletes, gender, psychosocial, disordered eating disorder, sports]
CNP Research Summary can be found in the CNP Library Membership
2020
Binge eating and binge eating disorder in athletes: A review of theory and evidence
This 1998 article explored the incidence of binge eating among athletes, who are believed to be more susceptible than the general population due to the strict requirements in weight and higher demand for better body shape. This review examines scientific reports with relevance to the development of binge eating disorder in athletes. Williams finds that following extreme and rigid dieting practices and focusing on body weight and composition can be risk factors for binge eating disorder. Regardless of the presence of stressors, controlling calorie intake for an extended time can disrupt hunger and satiety cues, and induce urges to binge eat. It was also discovered that binge eating disorder shares several mechanisms and behavioral traits with drug addiction. The traditional models of binge eating disorder are based on the general population and thus, the current treatments do not address the individual requirements of athletes. Currently, there are no guidelines for binge eating disorder management. Since binge eating disorder in athletes is likely induced by caloric restriction, this information may help coaches and athletes in preventing the onset of the disorder. [NPID: binge eating, binge eating disorder, athletes, weight, performance, calorie restriction, drug addiction]